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Ọdọ Mmiri Chad

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Ọdọmmiri Chad

  

Ọdọ Mmiri Chad (Arabic: بحيرة تشاد, Kanuri: Sádǝ, French: Lac Tchad) bụ ọdọ mmiri dị ọhụrụ nke dị n'ime mmiri[1] dị na njikọ nke mba anọ: Naịjiriya, Niger, Chad, na Cameroon, n'ọdịda anyanwụ na etiti Afrịka n'otu n'otu, yana mpaghara karịrị 1,000,000 km2 (390, 000 sq mi). Ọ bụ ala mmiri dị mkpa na West-Central Africa. Ọdọ mmiri ahụ bara ụba na akụrụngwa mmiri ma bụrụkwa otu n'ime ebe dị mkpa maka ịkụ azụ̀ mmiri dị ọcha n'Africa.

E kewara Ọdọ Mmiri Chad ụzọ n'ime akụkụ ndịda miri emi na akụkụ ugwu dị omimi karị. Isi iyi mmiri ọdọ mmiri ahụ sitere na ọdọ mmiri dịka osimiri Chari nke na-eso ọdọ mmiri ahụ[2]. Ọkwa mmiri na-agbanwe nke ukwuu n'oge ọ bụla, ebe ọdọ mmiri ahụ na-agbanwekwa nke ukwuu. Na narị afọ nke 19, ọ ka nwere mpaghara 28,000 km2 (11,000 sq mi).[3] Agbanyeghị, n'ihi mgbanwe ihu igwe na ụzọ mmadụ si emegharị mmiri, ọ belatala nke ukwuu kemgbe etiti afọ 1970, na mpaghara ya agbanweela n'etiti 2,000 na 5,000 km2 (770 na 1,930 sq mi).

Akụkọ ihe mere eme na akụkọ ihe mere eme

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Ọdọ Mmiri Chad n'oge mmiri ozuzo nke Africa (acha anụnụ anụnụ) na narị afọ nke 20 (ọcha akwụkwọ ndụ akwụkwọ ndụ gbara gburugburu na-acha anụnụ uhie)

E guzobere Chad Basin site na ọdịda nke Africa Shield.[4] E ji nkume dị n'ala nke ọdọ mmiri ahụ mee ala nke ọdọ mmiri ahụ, nke ihe karịrị mita 3,600 (ụkwụ 11,800) nke ihe ndị dị n'ime ya kpuchiri.[5] Maka ọtụtụ n'ime Quaternary, ọdọ mmiri ahụ nwere ọtụtụ ebe mmiri si apụta. Mgbe oge a na-erule njedebe, ihu igwe malitere ịkpọ nkụ. Ihe dị ka afọ 20,000 ruo 40,000 gara aga, ájá ájá eolianite malitere itolite n'ebe ugwu nke ala ahụ.[6] Mpaghara ọdọ mmiri Chad nwere oge dị elu n'etiti afọ 39,000 BC na 300 BC, na-ahapụ nnukwu ájá dị oké osimiri na ihe ndị e tinyere na lacustrine n'ime ájá dị n'ime ya. A kpọrọ nke a Mega-Chad. Oke omimi nke Mega-Chad karịrị mita 180 (ụkwụ 590) ma kpuchie ihe dị ka kilomita 400,000 (150,000 sq mi),[7] ọ gbabara n'ime Osimiri Benue site na Mayo Kébbi, nke na-asọba n'ime Oké Osimiri Atlantic site na Osimiri Niger.[8][9]

Mmiri buru ibu nke e mepụtara n'oge mmiri dị n'Africa nyere ọnọdụ maka mmalite nke ebe obibi ndị ọkụ azụ n'akụkụ ọdọ mmiri, agbụrụ Nilo-Saharan kwagakwara n'Ọdọ Mmiri Chad n'oge a. Ọrụ ugbo pụtakwara ìhè na mpaghara Sahel n'oge a.[10] Ka ọ na-erule afọ 1800 Tupu Kraịst, omenala ite ụrọ a maara dị ka Gajiganna pụtara, na mbụ dị ka ndị na-azụ anụ ụlọ, mana, malite n'ihe dị ka afọ 1500 Tupu Kraịst, bi n'obodo nta ndị bi n'akụkụ ọdọ mmiri ahụ.[11] Nchọpụta ihe mgbe ochie gosiri ahịhịa ọhịa, nke kachasị na ebo ahụ bụ Paniceae, na osikapa ọhịa yana ọka pearl kacha ochie a na-azụ n'ụlọ na mpaghara Lake Chad, nke dịrị site na 1200 ruo 1000 cal BC. A hụrụ otu n'ime millet pearl kacha ochie a na-azụ n'ụlọ na West Africa na Chad Basin, a na-ere ya ọkụ na ahịhịa ọhịa, a pụkwara ịkọ oge ha ruo 800-1000 cal BC.[12]

E guzobere obodo nta ndị na-adịgide adịgide n'ebe ndịda nke ọdọ mmiri ahụ ka ọ na-erule afọ 500 Tupu Kraịst,[13] ihe ndị e mere n'oge ochie dị mkpa gụnyere mmepeanya Sao. Dịka akwụkwọ ndekọ nke Claudius Ptolemy n'etiti narị afọ nke abụọ AD si kwuo, Ndị Rom nke narị afọ mbụ AD ezutelarị Lake Chad site na njikọ ha na Tunisia, Tripoli, na Fezzan.[14] Ka ọ na-erule narị afọ nke ise AD, a na-eji kamel eme azụmahịa trans-Saharan site na Fezzan, ma ọ bụ site n'ọwụwa anyanwụ site na Darfur.[15] Mgbe ndị Arab meriri Ugwu Afrịka n'ime narị afọ nke asaa na nke asatọ, Chad Basin malitere inwe njikọ na mba ndị Alakụba.[13]

Azụmahịa na usoro ọrụ ugbo ka mma mere ka obodo ndị nwere nkà dịkwuo elu.[15] N'ihe dịka afọ 900 AD, ndị Kanem ndị na-asụ asụsụ Kanuri jikọtara ọtụtụ agbụrụ ndị na-awagharị awagharị wee guzobe Alaeze Ukwu Kanem n'ebe ugwu ọwụwa anyanwụ nke ọdọ mmiri Chad. Ná mmalite ntọala obodo ahụ, ndị Kanem nọgidere na-ebi ndụ ndị na-eme njem kwa ụbọchị ruo narị afọ nke 11, mgbe ha ghọrọ ndị Alakụba ma biri na Njimi. Site na azụmaahịa trans-Saharan, ike nke Alaeze Ukwu Kanem ruru ọkwa kachasị elu ya na narị afọ nke 13, mana ka alaeze ukwu ahụ dara ada na narị afọ nke 14, steeti ndị nọ n'okpuru ọchịchị ndịda ọdịda anyanwụ nke Bornu malitere ịrị elu, mere ka ebe ike nke alaeze ukwu ahụ si ebe ahụ gaa na Bornu n'ihe dị ka afọ 1400. N'afọ 1574, Alaeze Ukwu Ottoman wakporo Fezzan na Oasis,[16] ma ruo ọbụna n'ime ọdọ mmiri Chad. Nke a bụ mwakpo kachasị njọ nke ndị Ottoman banyere n'ime ime obodo Afrịka tupu narị afọ nke iri na itoolu. Alaeze Ukwu Ottoman gbasaara mmetụta ya na mpaghara etiti nke Central Sahel n'oge ọchịchị nke Murad nke Atọ, Ọdọ Mmiri Chad wee bụrụ akụkụ nke mpaghara mmetụta Ottoman,[17] na ọkara nke abụọ nke narị afọ nke 16, Alaeze Ukwu Bornu malitere ibubata ngwa agha site na Alaeze Ukwu Ottoman, na-eme ka ọchịchị ndị agha ya sie ike. Alaeze Ukwu Bornu dara na narị afọ nke 18, ma mechaa tụfuo mpaghara ọdịda anyanwụ ya n'aka Sokoto Caliphate n'oge mmalite narị afọ nke 19. Ndị ọchịchị Yuropu mechara chịwa ya n'ime narị afọ nke iri abụọ.[18]

Site na mmụba mmasị n'Africa n'etiti ndị ọkà mmụta na ndị ọchụnta ego na Europe, Ndị Yuropu kọwara mpaghara Lake Chad nke ọma na narị afọ nke 19. E mere njem mmụta sayensị atọ n'agbata afọ 1898 na 1909. N'oge Ọgbakọ Berlin na 1884–1885, e kewara Afrịka n'etiti ndị ọchịchị Yurop. Ka ọ na-erule afọ iri abụọ nke narị afọ nke iri abụọ, ndị Britain, Frans, na Germany, chịrị ma biri n'Ọdọ Mmiri Chad, ịkọwapụta ókèala ndị na-adịgide adịgide na steeti ndị dị ugbu a mgbe ọchịchị gasịrị.[19][20] Ná mmalite nnwere onwe, mba ndị gbara Ọdọ Mmiri Chad gburugburu abụghị naanị na ha nwere ntọala akụ na ụba na-adịghị mma, kamakwa ha nwere esemokwu agbụrụ, okpukperechi, na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị ndị ọzọ dị mgbagwoju anya. Naịjirịa na ,igeretara nnwere onwe ọhụrụ, nwetara ọchịchị n'oge na-adịghị anya, ebe Chad nwekwara agha obodo na-aga n'ihu. Enweghị ike mba ndị dị n'akụkụ ọdọ mmiri ahụ ịtụle nchekwa nke ọdọ mmiri Chad emeela ka ọtụtụ nsogbu gburugburu ebe obibi dị iche iche.[20]

Ọdịdị ala

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Map na-egosi ọdọ mmiri nke Osimiri Chari

Ala Chad gụnyere Chad, Naịjirịa, Kamerun, Nijer, Sudan, na Central African Republic.[21] Ọ bụ ụdị nsogbu ịda mbà nke nwere ike ime ka ọ daa n'ime akụkụ anọ nke abụọ nke nwere nhazi: ịda mbà na ndịda, ịda mbà n'ugwu, elu etiti, na ugwu ọwụwa anyanwụ. A na-ahụ ọdịda anyanwụ nke ala mmiri ahụ site na mgbawa nke enweghị ntụpọ asymmetric fault depression nke nwere ugwu ndị dị elu n'ebe ọwụwa anyanwụ na ugwu dị nro n'ọdịda anyanwụ na profaịlụ ahụ, a na-ekesakwa ya n'ụzọ NNW n'ụgbọelu ahụ. E nwere nnukwu nsogbu abụọ dị n'akụkụ abụọ nke ọdọ mmiri ahụ, nke nwere nsogbu dị ka graben na ịda mbà n'etiti ya. Akụkụ ọwụwa anyanwụ na ọdịda anyanwụ bụ mpaghara ugwu dị nro nke na-agbada n'akụkụ ala. Nsogbu ókèala ọwụwa anyanwụ dị elu nke nwere akụkụ ndọda nke ihe dị ka 55°, ebe nsogbu ọdịda anyanwụ nwere akụkụ ndọda nke ihe dị ka 45°. Okpukpu nke oyi akwa dị n'ime mpaghara mkpọda ahụ dị ntakịrị. N'etiti mpaghara nke ala ahụ, ọkpụrụkpụ nke ala ahụ dị oke ibu, ọkpụrụkpụ nke mpaghara etiti ala ahụ ruru ihe karịrị mita 10,000 (ụkwụ 33,000). Akụkụ ugwu nke ọdọ mmiri ahụ dị elu n'ọdịda anyanwụ ma dị nro n'ọwụwa anyanwụ na profaịlụ ahụ. Mpaghara nhazi ihe ise dị ka nsogbu ndị dị n'akụkụ mmiri esiwo n'akụkụ ọdịda anyanwụ ruo n'ọwụwa anyanwụ pụta.[22]

E kewara ọdọ mmiri Chad n'akụkụ ugwu na ndịda site na oghere dị omimi nke a na-akpọ Great Barrier, ala nke ala nke ugwu ahụ dị mita 275.3 (ụkwụ 903) na ala nke ala nke ala nke ndịda ahụ dị mita 278.2 (ụkwụ 913). Mgbe mmiri dị n'ebe ndịda gafere mita 279 (ụkwụ 915) karịa ọkwa oké osimiri, ọ ga-asọba n'ebe ugwu.[23] N'ebe ndịda, e nwere mmiri na-emeghe mgbe niile n'ọnụ Osimiri Chari, ebe apịtị ahịhịa kpuchiri akụkụ ọdịda anyanwụ nke mmiri ahụ,[24] ájá ndị na-adịghị amịkọrọ kpamkpam n'ime mmiri ọwụwa anyanwụ na-aghọ agwaetiti. Omimi nke ọdọ mmiri ndịda dị n'etiti .5 na 2 m (1 ft 8 na na 6 ft 7 in), nke ọdọ mmiri ugwu dị n'etiti 0 na 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in), na nke agwaetiti ọwụwa anyanwụ dị n'etiti mita 0 na 2 (6 ft 7 in).[25]

Ihu igwe nke mpaghara Lake Chad na-emetụta nke ukwuu site na oke ikuku nke kọntinent na nke mmiri. Oke ikuku mmiri na-aga n'ebe ugwu n'oge ọkọchị, na-eme ka mmiri zoo n'oge oge. N'ọgwụgwụ oge ọkọchị, oke ikuku kọntinent na-achịkwa ọzọ.[7] Mmiri ozuzo kwa afọ na mpaghara ọdọ mmiri Chad bụ 330 mm (inchi 13), ya na mmiri ozuzo kwa afọ nke 560 mm (inchi 22.0) na ndịda na ihe dị ka 250 mm (inchi 9.8) na ugwu. Okpomọkụ kachasị elu n'oge mmiri ozuzo bụ 30°C (86°F), okpomọkụ kachasị elu na-arị elu ruo ihe karịrị 32°C (90°F) mgbe Ọktoba na Nọvemba na-abanye n'oge ọkọchị. Ọdịiche okpomọkụ dị n'etiti ehihie na abalị fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ okpukpu abụọ nke oge mmiri ozuzo, okpomọkụ abalị kacha ala na-agbadata ruo 8°C (46°F) na Disemba na Jenụwarị. Eprel na-abụkarị ọnwa kacha ekpo ọkụ n'afọ, ebe okpomọkụ na-erukarị 40 °C (104 °F), Mmiri kacha ala na-apụta n'ọnwa Juun ruo Julaị, ebe mmiri kachasị elu na-apụta n'ọnwa Nọvemba ruo Disemba, ebe okpomọkụ mmiri dị n'elu ya dị site na 19 ruo 32 Celsius (66 ruo 90 Celsius).

Mmiri na-amụ banyere mmiri

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Mbelata nke Ọdọ Mmiri Chad n'ime afọ 7000 gara aga, na nhazi nke British Isles maka ntụnyere
Ọdọ Mmiri Chad 1972-2007

Chad Basin kpuchiri ihe dị ka 1×106 km2 (390,000 sq mi), a na-agbakwa ya site na Chari, Logone, na Yobe Rivers. Mmiri ọdọ mmiri ahụ na-enweta n'oge. Ọtụtụ mmiri ozuzo na-abịa site na Adamawa Plateau dị na ndịda nke ọdọ mmiri ahụ, nke a na-ebuga na ọdọ mmiri ahụ site na Osimiri Chari na Osimiri Logone. Ha abụọ na-enye pasentị iri itoolu na ise nke mmiri niile dị n'Ọdọ Mmiri Chad, ebe Osimiri Yobe na-enye naanị ihe na-erughị pasentị abụọ na ọkara.[4] Ọdọ mmiri ahụ na-asọba n'ime ala ruo n'ebe kachasị ala nke Chad Basin, Bodélé Depression, ihe dị ka kilomita 480 (mile 300) n'ebe ugwu ọwụwa anyanwụ nke Ọdọ Mmiri Chad, ebe kachasị omimi ruru naanị mita 155 (ụkwụ 509) n'elu ọkwa oké osimiri. Nke a na-ewepụ ọtụtụ n'ime nnu dị n'ime ọdọ mmiri Chad ma na-eme ka nnu dị ala nke ọdọ mmiri Chad dị. Mmiri ndịda ọdịda anyanwụ nke Ọdọ Mmiri Chad bụ mmiri dị ọcha, mmiri dị n'ebe ugwu ọwụwa anyanwụ dịkwa ntakịrị nnu.[26][4] Mgbanwe ndị kwekọrọ na mmiri ozuzo yiri ka ọ metụtara mmetụta nke mmebi gburugburu ebe obibi.

Oke mmiri nke ọtụtụ ọdọ mmiri buru ibu n'Africa na-adabere na mmiri ozuzo na uzuoku, nke pụtara na okpomọkụ na-adị na mmiri ozuzo dịkwa oke mkpa maka ịchịkwa nguzozi mmiri nke mmiri ndị a, mgbanwe ọ bụla nwere ike ibute nnukwu mgbanwe na ọkwa mmiri na mpaghara ha.[27] Ọdọ Mmiri Chad bụ ọdọ mmiri dị n'ime ime obodo, mmiri ozuzo na mpaghara Chad na-emetụta obere mgbanwe na mgbasa ikuku, ya mere Mgbanwe ihu igwe na-emetụta elu ọdọ mmiri Chad nke ukwuu.[28][29] Ihu igwe kpọrọ nkụ n'ihi oke anụmanụ ịta ahịhịa na oke mkpofu osisi na nnukwu ọrụ ịgba mmiri nke dọpụrụ mmiri site n'osimiri ndị na-eri nri n'ọdọ mmiri bụ isi ihe kpatara mbelata nke Ọdọ Mmiri Chad.[30] Atlantic multidecadal oscillation na El Niño–Southern Oscillation emetụtala mmiri ozuzo na mpaghara Sahel. Site na mmalite afọ 1960 ruo etiti afọ 1980, ọkwa mmiri ọdọ mmiri ahụ dara site na mita 3 (ụkwụ 9.8) ma e jiri ya tụnyere nkezi ọkwa site na 1900 ruo 2010.[31]

N'afọ 1870, mpaghara ọdọ mmiri Chad dị ihe dị ka puku kilomita iri abụọ na asatọ (11,000 sq mi). Ọdọ mmiri ahụ nwere ike ịpụ na Bahr el-Ghazal n'oge mmiri ozuzo. Ná mmalite narị afọ nke 20, mpaghara ọdọ mmiri Chad dara obere oge, wee ruo n'ọkwa kachasị elu n'etiti narị afọ nke 20 wee si na Bahr el-Ghazal jupụta ọzọ. Oké ọkọchị malitere na mpaghara Sahel na ngwụcha afọ 1960 ma mebie nnukwu ihe na 1972 na 1984. E chere na ọ bụ ihe metụtara mfu osisi, okpomọkụ ụwa, na nsogbu okpomọkụ dị n'elu oké osimiri.[28] N'oge a, Ọdọ Mmiri Chad dara nke ukwuu ma gbanwee n'etiti 2,000 ruo 5,000 km2 (770 ruo 1,930 sq mi) mgbe nke ahụ gasịrị.[23]

Site na Juun 1966 ruo Jenụwarị 1973, mpaghara ọdọ mmiri Chad dara site na 22,772 ruo 15,400 km2 (8,792 ruo 5,946 sq mi),[30] na 1975, ala ahụ belatara ruo 4,398 km2 (1,698 sq mi).[23] na naanị 1,756 km2 (678 sq mi) na Febụwarị 1994.[30] Kemgbe ahụ, mpaghara ọdọ mmiri Chad abanyela n'ọnọdụ kwụsiri ike na mmụba dị ntakịrị.[32] Site na 1995 ruo 1998, ọ gbanwere n'etiti 1,200 ruo 4,500 km2 (460 ruo 1,740 sq mi). N'afọ 2000, mpaghara ahụ ruru square kilomita 5,075 (1,959 sq mi),[23] ebe nkezi mmiri dị n'elu ala site na 2013 ruo 2016 dị ihe dị ka 1,876 km2 (724 sq mi), ebe oke kachasị bụ 2,231 km2 (861 sq mi) na Julaị 2015.[33]

Mmiri dị n'okpuru ala na mmiri dị n'ime ala

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N'okpuru ọdọ mmiri ahụ ka e nwere aquifer Quaternary phreatic a na-anaghị achịkwa, nnukwu mmiri dị n'ofe ókèala nke dị ihe dị ka square kilomita 500,000 n'ofe Chad, Niger, Nigeria, na Cameroon.[34] Ọ bụ ezie na ọdọ mmiri ahụ na-efunahụ ihe dị ka 2,200mm/afọ mmiri n'ihi na mmiri nwere ike ịpụ apụ, ọmụmụ ihe gbasara isotopic nke ejiri isotopes kwụsiri ike na tritium na-egosi na sistemụ mmiri dị n'okpuru ala ka na-eguzogide mgbanwe ihu igwe nke ukwuu.[34][35]

Aquifer nke Quaternary na-arụ ọrụ nke ọma site na usoro abụọ bụ isi: ịbanye kpọmkwem na mmiri ozuzo siri ike n'oge na mpụta n'akụkụ site na ọdọ mmiri ahụ n'onwe ya na ọwa osimiri ya na-adịghị agwụ agwụ.[35] Data isotopic na-egosi na oke mmiri ozuzo gafere pasentị iri isii nke oke mmiri ozuzo kwa ọnwa na-akpali ọtụtụ n'ime mmiri mgbapụta ahụ, nke pụtara na mmụba nke mmiri ozuzo nke ebe okpomọkụ n'okpuru okpomọkụ ụwa na-akwado mmụba nke mmiri dị n'ime ala.[35] Ebe nchekwa mmiri a sara mbara na-enye nchekwa mmiri dị mkpa, hụ na mmiri na-adịgide adịgide maka mmiri mmiri nke obodo na nke ọrụ ugbo na-enweta n'agbanyeghị oke mgbanwe dị ukwuu n'elu mmiri na ala.[34]

Mmekọrịta gburugburu ebe obibi

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Ọdọ Mmiri Chad jupụtara na savanna

Akụkụ nke Chad Basin dị n'ime Chad Basin National Park na Naịjirịa, obodo ahụ na Cameroon eguzobela Ala Mmiri Chad Ramsar nke nwere oke ala dị 8,225 km2 (3,176 sq mi).[36]

Ndụ Ahịhịa

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Osisi mmiri dị n'ebe ndịda gụnyerekarị papyrus cyperus, wdg. Osisi ahịhịa na-etokarị n'ebe ugwu ebe nnu dị elu, osisi na-ese n'elu mmiri na-ekpuchikwa nnukwu ebe mmiri dị n'èzí. Mgbanwe usoro ojiji ala na mmebi na-aga n'ihu emeela ka ọdịiche dị iche iche belata ma mee ka ọhịa mepere emepe nke ukwuu, nke mejupụtara ụdị dị iche iche nke a na-emegharị iji belata mmiri [1]. Osisi dịka hyparrhenia rufa na-eto n'akụkụ ọdọ mmiri ndị nwere idei mmiri dị ogologo n'ebe ndịda.[36] Mpaghara osisi na-adịgide adịgide amụbaala site na ihe dị ka 3,800 km2 (1,500 sq mi) na 2000 ruo ihe dị ka 5,200 km2 (2,000 sq mi) na 2020 ka ọkwa mmiri adalatala ma okpomọkụ amụbaala.[37] A gbanweela oke ọhịa gbara ya gburugburu ka ọ bụrụ ọhịa mepere emepe nke nwere acacias, baobabs, nkwụ na India jujube.

Nnụnụ

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A kpọrọ ọdọ mmiri a Mkpa Ebe Nnụnụ (IBA) site n'aka BirdLife International.[38] Ọtụtụ narị ụdị nnụnụ dị iche iche dịka shoveler n'ebe ugwu, Ọgazị Ijipt na anụmanụ marabou na-ebi n'ime ya ruo mgbe ebighị ebi ma ọ bụ n'oge. Ọ bụ ebe dị mkpa maka nnụnụ ndị Europe na-eto eto na ndị na-egwu mmiri. E nwere anụ ọhịa dịka ugo steppe na ugo booted n'akụkụ ọdọ mmiri,[36] a na-ahụkwa ihe karịrị otu nde ruff n'ọdọ mmiri ahụ n'otu oge.

Anụ na-enye nwa ara

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Anụmanụ buru ibu a na-ahụkarị gụnyere gazel nwere ihu uhie, gazel dama, patas enwe, hyena nwere akara, cheetah na caracal, ebe a na-ekesa enyí Afrịka, otter, hippopotamus, sitatunga na kob n'ala mmiri. Ugbu a, a chụọla ọtụtụ n'ime nnukwu anụ anụmanụ ka ha laa n'iyi, e jiri ọtụtụ ehi dochie ha.[36]

Azụ

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N'ime Chad Basin dum, ụdị azụ̀ dị otu narị na iri asaa na itoolu, n'ime ha bụ otu azụ̀ dị na Naịja River Basin, 85 bụ otu ihe ahụ dị ka Osimiri Naịl, 47 bụ otu ihe ahụ dị ka Basini Kongo, ebe ụdị azụ 84 dị na ọdọ mmiri ahụ.[4] This maNke a mere ka ọ bụrụ ebe ịkụ azụ bara ụba maka obodo dị iche iche na Naịjirịa, Naịja, Chad, na KamerọseaMbugharị idei mmiri n'oge yana mmụba nke okpomọkụ ikuku na-eduga na mbelata nnu,smmụba nke turbidity, na mmụba nke ọkwa trophic, nke kpalitere mmụba nke ọnụọgụ phytoplankton nankton, allowinikwe ka nnukwu azụ̀ kwaga ebe dị iche iche n'ime mmiri ahụ n'oge ọ bụla iji zụọ ma mụọ ụmụ n'ime mmiri na-eme nri mgbe idei mmiri ruterhe CChad Basin ka bụ ebe a na-azụ azụ dị mkpa, nke nwere ihe karịrị ụdị azụ iri anọ dị mkpa maka azụmaahịao Ihe ọzọ dị mkpa bụ ụdị ochie dị ka azụ̀ lungfish nafin [1]

Ọrụ ụmụ mmadụ

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Ọdọ Mmiri Chad na foto Satellite nke afọ 2001. Ọdọ mmiri ahụ ejirila pasent 95 belata kemgbe afọ 1960. [39][40]
Iwu ụlọ nwa oge na mpaghara Lake Chad

E nwere ihe karịrị nde mmadụ iri atọ bi na Chad Lake Basin. E nwere ihe karịrị otu agbụrụ iri asaa gburugburu ọdọ mmiri ahụ, ọtụtụ n'ime ha kesara na ndịda, ebe njupụta ndị mmadụ karịrị 100/km2 (260/sq mi). Ha na-adabere na isi iyi mmiri nke Chad Lake maka ịgba mmiri, ịzụ ụmụ, ịzụ anụmanụ na ịṅụ ihe ọṅụṅụ.[26] Ihe ubi ndị obodo na-akọ nke ọma gụnyere sorgum, ọka, millet, agwa, na akwụkwọ nri. A na-akụ gourd nke ọma maka imepụta arịa. Nchịkọta nke ihe ndị dị n'ọhịa dịka chịngọm arabic, mmanụ aṅụ, wax aṅụ, na nkụ dị oke mkpa na mpaghara ahụ. Agbanyeghị, mbelata nke oke ọhịa emetụtala mmepụta nke ngwaahịa ndị a, mmụba dị egwu nke ìgwè ehi emeela ka mmetụta a ka njọ. Anụ ehi bụ anụ ụlọ kacha mkpa a na-azụ, tinyere anụ ọkụkọ, ewu, atụrụ, kamel, ịnyịnya, na ịnyịnya ibu. Akụ̀ na-akọ anụmanụ ndị a metụtara nke ukwuu n'ihi oké ọkọchị nke afọ 1970 na 1980.

Ịkụ azụ bụ ihe kacha mkpa maka ndị bi n'akụkụ ọdọ mmiri, nke fọrọ nke nta ka ọ kwụsị n'oge ọkọchị ma maliteghachi naanị n'etiti afọ 1990. A na-akpọ nkụ, a na-etinye mkpụrụ osisi a mịrị amị, ma ọ bụ na-ese anwụrụ n'ọtụtụ ihe ndị e ji azụ azụ. Mmiri natron nke e mepụtara n'oge ọdịda anyanwụ nke ọdọ mmiri ahụ abụrụla ihe dị mkpa kemgbe. Dịka omenala si dị, a na-egwupụta ya n'ime blọk ma na-ebuga ya n'ofe ọdọ mmiri ahụ iji banye n'ahịa Naịjirịa. Kemgbe ụkọ mmiri ozuzo nke afọ 1970, ala a na-akụ n'enweghị mmiri na fatịlaịza ekpugheela n'ala ọdọ mmiri ahụ, a na-eweghachikwa ya dị ka polder maka ịkụ ọka, cowpea, osikapa, ọka wit na ihe ọkụkụ ndị ọzọ.[41] Ndị ọrụ ugbo agbanweela site n'ịkụ ihe ubi kpọrọ nkụ, dịka ọka wit, gaa n'ịkụ osikapa nwere oke mmiri, nke na-eme ka ala dị oke njọ ma na-eme ka mmiri ghara ịdị ọcha.[26] Mmetụta ọjọọ nke mbelata mmiri na-enwe n'ịkụ azụ, ọrụ ugbo, na ịzụ anụ karịrị uru ala ọhụrụ sitere na mmiri ndị na-ebelata. Ndị bi gburugburu ebe ahụ bụ́ ndị na-adabere na mmiri ọdọ mmiri ahụ ka a manyere ịkwaga ebe ọzọ, nke mere ka akụnụba nke mpaghara ọdọ mmiri ahụ na-ebelata mgbe niile.[42]

Kemgbe afọ 1970, mba ise dị na ndịda nke ala ahụ arụọla ọtụtụ ọrụ nchekwa mmiri n'elu Osimiri Chari, Osimiri Logone, na Osimiri Yobe iji gbochie mmiri osimiri, nke mere ka ọnụọgụ mmiri na-abanye n'ọdọ mmiri ahụ belata nke ukwuu. Nkezi mmiri mmiri nke Osimiri Chari na Osimiri Logone na-abata kwa afọ site na 1970 ruo 1990 bụ naanị pasent 55 nke nke ahụ site na 1950 ruo 1970. Kemgbe afọ 1980, otu ụzọ n'ụzọ atọ nke mmiri dị n'Osimiri Chari na Osimiri Logone agbanweela ụzọ ma Central African Republic jidere ya nke dị n'elu mmiri maka ịgba mmiri na mmepụta ike mmiri.[26]袁宣民 (2016). "乍得湖的环境、安全及其脆弱性" (in zh-cn). 世界科学 (7): 21–23. Retrieved on 2023-06-13. </ref> Ọdọ mmiri ndị e wuru n'elu osimiri ndị na-abanye n'ọdọ mmiri ahụ gbanwere oge na oke idei mmiri n'oge ma gbochie njem azụ, Nke a mere ka ọnụọgụgụ Alestes baremoze na Nile perch, bụ́ isi azụ a na-ejide n'Ọdọ Mmiri Chad, belata nke ukwuu.[4] N'otu oge ahụ, esemokwu dị n'etiti mba dị iche iche na agbụrụ dị iche iche na-asọ mpi maka mmiri na ala na-akawanye njọ. Mba anọ dị n'akụkụ ọdọ mmiri ahụ na-eche nsogbu nke oke ịda ogbenye ihu, nakwa n'ihi ihe isi ike ha nwere n'ịzụta ihe ha ji ebi ndụ, ụfọdụ ndị bi n'ógbè ahụ etinyela aka n'ahịa ọgwụ ọjọọ na ngwa agha.[26] Nke a emeela ka nke a ka njọ site n'ọrụ nke Boko Haram, bụ́ mwakpo nke chụpụrụ ọtụtụ nde mmadụ ma mebie mmepe n'ime mpaghara ahụ.[43]

Kamerun, Naịja, ,aijiriaChad hiwere Kọmishọna Chad Basin nke dị n'Ọdọ Mmiri na 22 Mee 1964. The CMba Central African Republic sonyeere na 1996, Libya sonyekwara na. The hIsi ụlọ ọrụ kọmitii ahụ dị na N'Djamenad. The cỌrụ kọmishọn ahụ gụnyere ijikwa Lake Chad na akụrụngwa mmiri ya, ichekwa gburugburu ebe obibi na ịkwalite njikọta mpaghara, udo, nchekwa, na mmepe na mpaghara Lake Chad. Atụmatụ mba ndị gbara ya gburugburu maka imejupụta mmiri n'Ọdọ Mmiri Chad gụnyere iwu ọwa mmiri nke dị kilomita 2,400 (maịlụ 1,500) ibuga mmiri 100×109 m3 (130×109 yd3) site na Osimiri Congo ruo Osimiri Chari kwa afọ, ma jiri usoro dam dị iche iche n'ụzọ ahụ iji mepụta ọkụ eletrik.[44]

Hụkwa

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  • Inner Niger Delta, a n'ime ala delta na Mali
  • Ọdọ Mmiri Ptolemy, ọdọ mmiri ochie dị na Sudan
  • Ndepụta ọdọ mmiri ndị na-akpọnwụ
  • Sudd, nnukwu ala ahịhịa na South Sudan
  • Anụ ọhịa nke Chad
  • Lake Chad replenishment project - Atụmatụ a tụrụ aro maka ịdọrọ mmiri iji gbochie ịcha ọdọ mmiri Chad

Edensibia

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  1. 1 2 3 "Lake Chad | Physical Features & Economy | Britannica", Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved on 2026-06-16. (in en)
  2. ↑ Africa’s vanishing Lake Chad | Africa Renewal. africarenewal.un.org. Retrieved on 2026-06-16.
  3. ↑ Magrin (1 December 2016). "The disappearance of Lake Chad: history of a myth". Journal of Political Ecology 23 (1). DOI:10.2458/v23i1.20191. 
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Hughes (1992). A Directory of African Wetlands (in en). IUCN / UNEP / WCMC, 329–330. ISBN 2-88032-949-3. Retrieved on 2023-06-14. 
  5. ↑ Obaje (2009-08-12). Geology and Mineral Resources of Nigeria. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-92684-9. Retrieved on 2013-05-06. 
  6. ↑ Wright (1985-11-30). Geology and Mineral Resources of West Africa. Springer. ISBN 978-0-04-556001-1. Retrieved on 2013-05-06. 
  7. 1 2 Gritzner, J. A. "Lake Chad". Encyclopedia Britannica (in Bekee). Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Archived from the original on 22 July 2019. Retrieved 2023-06-13.
  8. ↑ Leblanc (2006). "Reconstruction of Megalake Chad using Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission data" (in en). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 239 (1–2): 16–27. DOI:10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.01.003. Retrieved on 2023-06-13. 
  9. ↑ Mathieu Schuster (2005). "Holocene Lake Mega-Chad palaeoshorelines from space". Quaternary Science Reviews 24 (16–17): 1821–1827. DOI:10.1016/j.quascirev.2005.02.001. 
  10. ↑ Kevin Shillington (28 August 2018). History of Africa. Macmillan Education UK, 19–31. ISBN 978-1-137-52481-2. 
  11. ↑ Ogundiran (2005). "Four Millennia of Cultural History in Nigeria (ca. 2000 B.C.–A.D. 1900): Archaeological Perspectives". Journal of World Prehistory 19 (2). DOI:10.1007/s10963-006-9003-y. 
  12. ↑ Marlies Klee (1999). "The Exploitation of Wild and Domesticated Food Plants at Settlement Mounds in North-East Nigeria (1800 cal BC to Today)", The Exploitation of Plant Resources in Ancient Africa, 81–88. DOI:10.1007/978-1-4757-6730-8_8. ISBN 978-1-4419-3316-4. 
  13. 1 2 Decorse (2001). West Africa During the Atlantic Slave Trade: Archaeological Perspectives. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-7185-0247-8. Retrieved on 2013-05-06. 
  14. ↑ Johnston (1910). "Lake Chad" (in en). Nature 84 (2130): 244–245. DOI:10.1038/084244a0. ISSN 1476-4687. 
  15. 1 2 Appiah (2010). Encyclopaedia of Africa. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533770-9. Retrieved on 2013-05-06. 
  16. ↑ Lange (2004). Ancient Kingdoms of West Africa: African-centred and Canaanite-Israelite Perspectives ; a Collection of Published and Unpublished Studies in English and French (in en). J.H.Röll Verlag. ISBN 978-3-89754-115-3. 
  17. ↑ Flynn (2016-01-01). "THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE AND KANEM- BORNU DURING THE REIGN OF SULTAN MURAD III A Master's Thesis". Bilkent Master's Thesis. 
  18. ↑ Kevin Shillington (28 August 2018). History of Africa. Macmillan Education UK, 101–103+188–190+249–256. ISBN 978-1-137-52481-2. 
  19. ↑ Harlow (2003). "Conference of Berlin (1884–1885)", Colonialism. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-335-3. Retrieved on 2013-05-06. 
  20. 1 2 熊正坤. "乍得湖：从"文明摇篮"到"死亡之心"", China Water Resources News, 2021-04-08. Retrieved on 2024-01-01.
  21. ↑ about-map. Lake Chad Basin Commission. Archived from the original on 2024-03-26. Retrieved on 2024-03-26.
  22. ↑ 黄先雄 (2008). "乍得湖盆地构造特征与油气成藏规律初探". 大地构造与成矿学 (3): 326–331. DOI:10.16539/j.ddgzyckx.2008.03.013. 
  23. 1 2 3 4 刘甜甜 (2013). "基于多源遥感数据的非洲乍得湖水面变化监测" (in zh-cn). 地理科学进展 32 (6): 906–912. DOI:10.11820/dlkxjz.2013.06.007. 
  24. ↑ Marie-Thérèse Sarch (June 2000). "Fishing and farming at Lake Chad: Responses to lake-level fluctuations". The Geographical Journal 166 (2): 156–172. DOI:10.1111/j.1475-4959.2000.tb00015.x. 
  25. ↑ Jacques Lemoalle (January 2012). "Recent changes in Lake Chad: Observations, simulations and management options (1973–2011)". Global and Planetary Change 80–81 (247–254): 247–254. DOI:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2011.07.004. 
  26. 1 2 3 4 5 袁宣民 (2016). "乍得湖的环境、安全及其脆弱性" (in zh-cn). 世界科学 (7): 21–23. Retrieved on 2023-06-13. 
  27. ↑ Richard Ogutu-Ohwayo (2016). "Implications of climate variability and change for African lake ecosystems, fisheries productivity, and livelihoods". Journal of Great Lakes Research 42 (3): 498–510. DOI:10.1016/j.jglr.2016.03.004. 
  28. 1 2 Evans (1996). "The effects of changes in the world hydrological cycle on availability of water resources", in Bazzaz: Global climate change and agricultural production (in en). FAO / John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 92-5-103987-9. 
  29. ↑ Leblanc (2007). "Remote sensing for groundwater modelling in large semiarid areas:Lake Chad Basin, Africa" (in en). Hydrogeology Journal 15 (1): 97–100. DOI:10.1007/s10040-006-0126-0. 
  30. 1 2 3 Lake Chad: almost gone. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Archived from the original on 2008-12-16. Retrieved on 2015-12-05.
  31. ↑ Churchill Okonkwo (2015-12-15). "Combined effect of El Niño southern oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation on Lake Chad level variability". Cogent Geoscience 1 (1). DOI:10.1080/23312041.2015.1117829. 
  32. ↑ Wengbin Zhu (2017). "Monitoring Recent Fluctuations of the Southern Pool of Lake Chad Using Multiple Remote Sensing Data: Implications for Water Balance Analysis". Remote Sensing 9 (10). DOI:10.3390/rs9101032. 
  33. ↑ Willibroad Gabila Buma (2018). "Recent surface water extent of Lake Chad from multispectral sensors and GRACE". Sensors 18 (7). DOI:10.3390/s18072082. PMID 29958481. 
  34. 1 2 3 Mahamat Nour (2022). "Shallow Quaternary groundwater in the Lake Chad basin is resilient to climate change but requires sustainable management strategy: Results of isotopic investigation". Science of The Total Environment 848. DOI:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158152. 
  35. 1 2 3 Goni (2021). "Groundwater recharge from heavy rainfall in the southwestern Lake Chad Basin: evidence from isotopic observations". Hydrological Sciences Journal 66 (10): 1521–1534. DOI:10.1080/02626667.2021.1937630. 
  36. 1 2 3 4 Emma Martin (15 December 2021). Lake Chad Flooded Savanna. www.oneearth.org. Archived from the original on 15 July 2023. Retrieved on 2023-07-15.
  37. ↑ Binh Pham-Duc (2020). "The Lake Chad hydrology under current climate change". Scientific Reports 10 (5498). DOI:10.1038/s41598-020-62417-w. PMID 32218517. 
  38. ↑ Lake Chad. BirdLife Data Zone. BirdLife International (2024). Retrieved on 2024-10-30.
  39. ↑ Plan B Updates - 47: Disappearing Lakes, Shrinking Seas - EPI. earth-policy.org.
  40. ↑ Shrinking African Lake Offers Lesson on Finite Resources. nationalgeographic.com. Archived from the original on April 30, 2001.
  41. ↑ Luxereau (2011). "Fluctuations in the Size of Lake Chad: Consequences on the Livelihoods of the Riverain Peoples in Eastern Niger" (in en). Regional Environmental Change 12 (3): 507–521. DOI:10.1007/s10113-011-0267-0. Retrieved on 2023-06-13. 
  42. ↑ Roman D. Zarate (2023-09-05). The Effects of Climate Change in the Poorest Countries: Evidence from the Permanent Shrinking of Lake Chad (en). World Bank. Retrieved on 2024-04-08.
  43. ↑ Olowoyeye (2023). "Water and Food Sustainability in the Riparian Countries of Lake Chad in Africa". Sustainability 15. DOI:10.3390/su151310009. 
  44. ↑ Ross. "Can the vanishing lake be saved?", BBC, 2018-03-31. Retrieved on 2019-01-28. (in en-GB)

Ịgụ ihe ọzọ

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Njikọ mpụga

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Templeeti:Lakes of Chad

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