Gaa na ọdịnaya

Berlin Conference

Shí Wikipedia, njikotá édémédé nke onyobulạ
Nzukọ nke Berlin, dị ka e gosipụtara na akwụkwọ akụkọ German Die GartenlaubeỊnwụ Gartenlaube
Nzukọ nke Berlin, dị ka e gosiri na Illustrirte ZeitungIllustrate gị na Zeitung

Ọgbakọ Berlin nke agbata1884-1885 bụ ihe nke ike ike nke mechiri site na ịbịanye aka na General Act of Berlin, [1] . na-achịkwa ndị Europe na azụmahịa na Africa n'oge New Imperialism.  Ọ bụ Otto von Bismarck, onye isi ala mbụ nke Germany, haziri akwụkwọ nke mba iri na anọ, na ọtụtụ nke Leopold nke amaghị nke Belgium.[2]  Ọ zutere na 15 Nọvemba 1884 ma, mgbe a gbasịrị ya, mechiri na 26 Febụwarị 1885 site na ịbịanye aka na General Act.

Enwere ike ịhụ General Act of Berlin dị ka nhazi nke Scramble for Africa nke na-aga n'ihu. Nzukọ ahụ nyere aka n'ịmepụta oge nke ọrụ ọchịchị ndị Europe, a na-ekwukwa mgbe ụfọdụ dị ka onye na-ahụ maka "ịkpụpụ Afrịka". Otú ọ dị, ụfọdụ ndị ọkà mmụta na-adọ aka ná ntị megide ikwubiga okwu ókè banyere ọrụ ya na nkewa nke Africa, na-adọta uche n'ọtụtụ nkwekọrịta abụọ e mere tupu na mgbe nzukọ ahụ gasịrị.[1]>[2][3] Nnyocha e mere n'afọ 2024 chọpụtara na naanị ókèala ndị e debere na nnọkọ ahụ bụ nke mpaghara Congo (ma e dezigharịrị ha), nakwa na ọtụtụ n'ime ókèala Afrịka ewepụghị ụdị ikpeazụ ha ruo mgbe ihe karịrị afọ iri abụọ gachara.[4] Wm. Otú ọ dị,Wm. Roger Louis kwetara na "Iwu Berlin nwere ihe dị mkpa na usoro nkewa" nke Africa. [Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji][citation needed]

Nzukọ

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Asọmpi Europe maka ndị na-achị ala mere ka Germany malite ịmalite njem nke ya, nke tụrụ ndị ọchịchị Britain na France egwu. N'inwe olile anya iji belata esemokwu ahụ ngwa ngwa, Eze Belgium Leopold nke Abụọ mere ka France na Germany kwenye na azụmahịa ha na-azụ n'Africa bụ maka ọdịmma kachasị mma nke mba atọ ahụ. N'okpuru nkwado sitere n'aka ndị Britain na mbido nke Portugal, Otto von Bismarck, Onye isi ala nke Germany, kpọrọ ndị nnọchiteanya nke mba 13 na Europe yana United States ka ha sonye na Nzukọ Berlin na 1884 iji rụọ ọrụ na kọntinent Afrịka.

Nzukọ ahụ meghere na 15 Nọvemba 1884 ma mechie na 26 Febụwarị 1885. [5] ụfọdụ ndị anya 'dị iche na mba ọ ALA, mana mba iri na anọ a ndị ọchịchị ka ha ga-aga Berlin ma bịanye aka na Iwu Berlin na-esote:[6]

Ọnọdụ Alaeze Ukwu Ndị nnọchi anya
Templeeti:Country data German Empire Alaeze Ukwu Germany Otto von Bismarck Paul von Hatzfeldt Clemens Busch Heinrich von Kusserow [de][de]


Templeeti:Country data Austria-Hungary Alaeze Ukwu Austria Imre Széchényi von Sárvár-Felsővidék
Òtù Mba Nile nke CongoTempleeti:Country data Congo Free StateTempleeti:Namespace detect showall Òtù Mba Nile nke Congo Gabriel August van der Straten-Ponthoz [de] Auguste, Baron Lambermont[de]
Ọgọstọs, Baron Lambermont
Templeeti:Country data Restoration (Spain) Alaeze Ukwu Spain Francisco Merry na Colom, 1st Count of Benomar
Denmark Alaeze Ukwu Danish Emil Vind [da]
United States Alaeze Ukwu America John A. Kasson Henry S. Sanford Henry Morton Stanley (dị ka onye ndụmọdụ teknụzụ)

Templeeti:Country data French Third Republic Alaeze Ukwu France Alphonse de Courcel
Templeeti:Country data United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland Alaeze Ukwu Britain Edward Baldwin Malet
 Italy Alaeze Ukwu Ịtali Edoardo de Launay [it]
Netherlands Alaeze Ukwu Dutch Philip van der Hoeven
Templeeti:Country data Kingdom of Portugal Alaeze Ukwu Portugal Antônio José da Serra Gomes [pt] [pt] António de Serpa Pimentel
Templeeti:Country data Russian Empire Ọchịchị Russia Pyotr Kapnist
Templeeti:Country data Union between Sweden and Norway Alaeze Ukwu Sweden Gillis Bildt
Templeeti:Country data Ottoman Empire Alaeze Ukwu Ottoman Mehmed Said Pasha

N'ụzọ pụrụ iche, United States nwere ikike ịjụ ma ọ bụ ịnabata nkwubi okwu nke nzukọ ahụ.[7]

Iwu Nchịkọta

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

General Act setịpụrụ ihe ndị a:

  • N'otu akụkụ iji nweta nnabata ọha na eze, [8] [2] nzukọ ahụ kpebiri ịkwụsị ịgba ohu site n'aka Ndị Afrịka na ndị Alakụba. N'ihi ya, ndị otu Europe bịanyere aka na mmachibido iwu mba ụwa maka ahia ohu n'ebe niile ha na-akwanyere ùgwù. N'akwụkwọ akụkọ ya bụ Heart of Darkness, Joseph Conrad jiri mkparị kpọtụrụ otu n'ime ndị sonyere na nnọkọ ahụ, International Association of the Congo (nke a na-akpọkwa "International Congo Society"), dị ka "International Society for the Suppression of Savage Customs". Aha mbụ nke Society a bụ "International Association for the Exploration and Civilization of Central Africa".
  • Ihe onwunwe nke Belgian King Leopold's International Congo Society, aha e ji mee ihe na General Act, gosipụtara dị ka nke Society. N'abalị mbụ n'ọnwa Ọgọstụ n'afọ 1885, ọnwa ole na ole mgbe e mechiri Nzukọ Berlin, onye isi nchịkwa Leopold na Congo, Francis nke Winton, mara ọkwa na a na-akpọ ókèala ahụ "Congo Free State", aha nke a na-ejighị n'ezie mee ihe n'oge nzukọ ahụ ma ọ pụtaghị na General Act.[9][1][3] Akwụkwọ Iwu Belgian Law Gazette mechara kwuo na site n'otu 1 Ọgọst 1885 gaa n'ihu, a ga-ewere Leopold nke Abụọ dị ka Onye Ọchịchị nke steeti ọhụrụ ahụ, ọzọ bụ okwu a na-emetụbeghị, ma ọ bụrụ na e kpebie ya, na Nzukọ Berlin. [10][11]
  • Ike iri na anọ bịanyere aka ga-enwe azụmahịa n'efu na Congo Basin yana Ọdọ Mmiri Malawi na ọwụwa anyanwụ ya n'ebe ndịda nke 5 ° N.
  • E mere ka osimiri Niger na Congo n'efu maka ụgbọ mmiri.
  • E webatara ụkpụrụ nke ọrụ dị irè (dabere na ọrụ dị irè, lee n'okpuru) iji gbochie ike ịmepụta mpaghara naanị n'aha.
  • Omume ọ bụla ọhụrụ nke inweta akụkụ ọ bụla nke ụsọ oké osimiri Afrịka ga-agwa site n'ike na-enweta, ma ọ bụ na-ewere nchebe, na ike ndị ọzọ bịanyere aka.
  • Nkọwa nke mpaghara ebe ike ọ bụla dị na Europe nwere ikike pụrụ iche ịchụso ikike iwu nke ala

iju mbụ n'ime iwu mba ụwa maka ọrụ ndị na-egosi mgbaàmà dị na Iwu Berlin.

Ụkpụrụ nke ọrụ dị irè

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

ụzọ nke obibi dị ikwu na ike nwere ike ikike n'elu ala ndị ọ na-achị ma ọ bụrụ na o nwere ha ma ọ bụ nwee ọrụ dị ike: ọ bụrụ na ya na ndị isi obodo nwere ike, na-efefe ọkọlọtọ ya n'ebe ahụ, ma guzobe mpaghara ahụ iji ndị uwe ojii chịa ya iji mee ka iwu dị. Ike ike nwere ike iji ụdị ahụ mee ihe n'ụzọ na nyere. Kamar ahụ ihe dị ọ mkpa dị ka ihe ndabere maka ike Europe iji nweta ọbụbụeze ala n'Africa mmetụta maka ịdepụta ihe mmetụta ha dị iche iche na mba ofesi, dị ka ọrụ dị irẹ na-eje ozi n'ụdị ụfọdụ dị ka mfe maka idozi ngwaọrụ. Otú ọ dị, dị ka oke nke Iwu Berlin na-ejedebe na ala ndị dị n'ụka oke osimiri Afrịka, ike Europe n'ሲseda Ọnọdụ putara na ha nwere ikike n'elu ala ndị dị ime n' mimu ihe ihe maka ọrụ dị irẹ, dịka akọ na Nkeji edemede 35 nke Iwu Ikpeazụ.

Ntụnyere nke Africa n'afọ 1880 na 1913

Na Nzukọ Berlin, a na-arụrịta ụka nke ukwuu n'etiti Germany na France banyere ụkpụrụ nke ọrụ dị irè. Ndị Germany, ndị bụ ndị ọhụrụ na kọntinent ahụ, kwenyere n'ụzọ bụ isi na n'ihe gbasara mmụba nke ike n'Africa, ọ dịghị ike ọchịchị kwesịrị inwe ikike iwu ọ bụla n'ókèala ọ gwụla ma steeti ahụ gosipụtara ikike ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị siri ike ma dị irè ma, ọ bụrụ na ọ bụ naanị maka oge a kpaara ókè, n'ụzọ dị mkpa ọ bụ naanị ike na-achịkwa. Otú ọ dị, echiche Britain bụ na Germany bụ onye bịara n'azụ oge na kọntinent ahụ ma o yighị ka ọ ga-enweta ihe onwunwe ọ bụla karịa ndị o nwere, nke na-egosi ngwa ngwa na ọ bara uru karịa ókèala Britain.  [citation needed][citation needed] Echiche mere ka Britain na France chee na Germany nwere ikike ime ihere na ike ndị ọzọ dị na Europe na kọntinent ahụ ma manye ha nyere ihe mmetụta ha ma ọ bụrụ na ahụ akara ike ike ike ike ike siri ike. N' iwo nke ọzọ, Britain nwere nnukwu nnukwu ala n'ebe ahụ ma ngosi idebe ha ka ọ na-Bịa ọrụ ya na-ahụ maka atụmatụ. N'ikpeazụ, echiche ndị Britain meri.

Enweghị mmasị nke ike ndị dị ukwuu ịchịkwa ókèala ha pụtara ìhè n'ime usoro iwu nke Nzukọ Berlin mana ọkachasị na Ụkpụrụ nke Ọrụ Dị irè. N'ikwekọ n'echiche ndị na-emegide Germany na Britain, ike ndị ahụ mechara kweta na ike Europe nwere ike iguzobe ya na-eguzobe ụdị ntọala ụfọdụ n'ụsọ oké osimiri nke ọ nweere onwe ya ịgbasa n'ime ime. Ndị Europe ekwenyeghị na iwu nke obibi chọrọ ikike Europe n'ala. Ndị Belgium chọrọ na mbụ itinye ọrụ ahụ dị irè chọrọ ndokwa nke "na-eme ka udo dị", mana Britain na France bụ ike ndị wepụrụ mgbanwe ahụ na akwụkwọ ikpeazụ.

ahụ ahụ, ndị isi ndị ọzọ e dere na nrị ahụ, nyere ndị Europe mkpa imeri Afrịka mana ime obere ihe o kwere mee iji jikwaa ma ọ bụ chịkwaa ya. ahụ ahụ emetụtaghị nke ukwuu n'ime ime obodo nke Africa n'oge n'anụ ahụ. Nke a mere ka e nwee echiche ime obodo, nke nyere ike ọ alụla nwere ala dị n'ụka osimiri ikike ịsị na ọ nwere ike ike ngwaọrụ n'ụdị n'ime ala. Ebe ọ bụ na a na-akpụzi Africa n'ụzọ na-adịghị mma, echiche ahụ echiche nsogbu ma nwoke jụrụ ya..

Ihe omume

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]
  • Portugal-Britain: Gọọmentị Portugal gosipụtara ọrụ, nke a maara dị ka "Pink Map", ma ọ bụ "Rose-Coloured Map", nke jikọtara mpaghara Angola na Mozambique site na nhọrọ nke mpaghara ahụ (ala ahụ mechara bụrụ Zambia, Zimbabwe, na Malawi). Mba niile gara nzukọ ahụ, ma e wezụga Britain, kwadoro ọchịchọ Portugal, na ihe karịrị afọ ise ka e mesịrị, na 1890, gọọmentị Britain nyere iwu ka ndị Portugal pụọ n'ebe ahụ a na-ese okwu.  [citation needed][citation needed]
  • France-Britain: A line na-aga site na Say na Niger ruo Maroua, n'ụsọ oké osimiri nke Lake Chad, na-ekpebi nke bụ nke onye. France ga-enwe ala dị n'ebe ugwu nke akara ahụ, Britain ga-enwekwa ala dị n"ebe ndịda ya. Mmiri nke Naịl ga-abụ nke ndị Britain, na ndị France na-ewere mmiri nke Ọdọ Mmiri Chad. Ọzọkwa, n'etiti 11th na 15th degrees n'ebe ugwu na latitude, ókèala ga-agafe n'etiti Ouaddaï, nke ga-abụ French, na Darfur na Sudan, nke ga na-abụ British. N'ezie, e debere ala onye ọ bụla dị kilomita 200 n'obosara n'etiti 21st na 23rd meridians n'ebe ọwụwa anyanwụ. 
  • France-Germany: Ebe dị n'ebe ugwu nke akara, nke jikọtara 14th meridian n'ebe ọwụwa anyanwụ na Miltou, ka a họpụtara ka ọ bụrụ French, ebe dị n' ndịda ga-abụ German, nke a na-akpọ German Cameroon.
  • Britain-Germany: Nkewa ahụ bịara n'ụdị akara na-agafe Yola, na Benue, Dekoa, na-arịgo na nsọtụ Ọdọ Mmiri Chad.
  • France-Italy: Ịtali ga-enwe ihe dị n'ebe ugwu nke akara site na nkwonkwo nke Tropic of Cancer na 17th meridian ọwụwa anyanwụ ruo nkwonkwo ya nke 15th parallel n'ebe ọwụwa Anyanwụ na 21st meridian ọ bụla.

Ihe si na ya pụta

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]
Nkwupụta Europe na Africa, 1913. A na-egosi ókèala taa, nke bụ ihe nketa nke oge ọchịchị, Templeeti:Legend inlineTempleeti:Legend inline  GermanyTempleeti:Legend inline  SpainTempleeti:Legend inline  FranceTempleeti:Legend inline  Great BritainTempleeti:Legend inline  ỊtaliTempleeti:Legend inline  PortugalTempleeti:Legend inlineNnwere onwe (Liberia na Etiopia)   

Nzukọ ahụ nyere ohere iji mee ka esemokwu ndị Europe na-adịghị ahụ anya megide ibe ha; nye ebe ọhụrụ maka inyere ike ndị Europe aka ịgbasa n'ihu ọdịmma ndị America, Russia na Japan na-arịwanye elu; ma mepụta mkparịta ụka dị mma iji belata esemokwu n'ọdịnihu. N'Africa, e webatara ọchịchị ndị eze n'ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ kọntinent niile. Mgbe e nwetaghachiri nnwere onwe Afrịka mgbe Agha Ụwa nke Abụọ gasịrị, ọ bụ n'ụdị steeti kewara ekewa.[12]

N'agbanyeghị nnukwu ihe si na Nzukọ Berlin pụta, ọ dịghị onye ọchịchị Afrịka a kpọrọ ka ọ bịa nzukọ ahụ. Ike ndị Europe kewara kọntinent ahụ dịka ọdịmma akụ na ụba nke ha si dị, na-eleghara ókèala na uche ndị mmadụ anya. Ike ndị Europe leghaara usoro ike ndị dịbu anya ma mepụta ókèala ndị a na-akparaghị ókèala, na-eduga na esemokwu ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị na akụ na ụba ogologo oge maka mba ndị e mepụtara ọhụrụ. [13][14]

Mkparịta ụka maka Afrịka mere ngwa ngwa mgbenda ahụ, ebe ọ bụ na egwu n'ime ebe ndị na-egosi dị ka ebe ha na-emetụta, ike ndị Europe ga-enweta ikike dị irẹ site na ikike nke ikike irẹ. ịma n'etiti Afrịka, e njem iji manye ndị omenala ịbịanye aka na-abụ, na-eji ike ma ọ bụrụ na ọ dị mkpa, dị ka Msiri, Eze Katanga, na 1891. Ndị France meri steeti ndị Bedouin na ndị Berber na Sahara na Sahel n'akpa agha site na akpa nke Agha Mbụ. Ndị Britain si South Africa rịgoro ma si Egypt gbadaa ma merie steeti ndị dị Mba Mahdist State na Sultanate nke Zanzibar ma, ebe ha ebute ụzọ Zulu na South Africa na 1879, gaa n'ihu iji weghara mba Ndị Boer nwere onwe ha nke Transvaal na Orange Free State.

N’ime afɔ ole na ole, e kewara Africa ma ọ̀ rọ ala n’aha n’ebe ndịda Sahara. Ka ọ na-erule afọ 1895, steeti steeti nweere onwe ha bụ:

  • , tinyere aka na esemokwu ọchịchị na Spain na France, nke meriri mba ahụ na mmalite narị afọ nke 20. Morocco
  • , nke e guzobere na nkwado nke United States maka ndị ohu a tọhapụrụ iji laghachi Africa. Liberia
  • , nke gbochiri mwakpo ndị Ịtali si Eritrea na Agha Italo-Ethiopia nke Mbụ nke 1895-1896 mana ọ dara n'aka ndị Ịtali na 1936 mmeri n'oge Agha Itolo-Ethiopian nke AbụọTempleeti:Country data Ethiopian EmpireAgha nke Abụọ nke Ịtali na Etiopia
  • Majeerteen Sultanate, nke e guzobere na mmalite narị afọ nke 18, bụ nke Ịtali weghaara na narị afọ nke 20.
  • Sultanate nke Hobyo, nke e wepụrụ site na Majeerteen Sultanate, nke chịrị ugwu Somalia ruo na narị afọ nke 20, mgbe etinyere ya na Somaliland nke Ịtali.

Alaeze Ukwu Britain weghaara steeti ndị a ihe dị ka afọ iri mgbe nke ahụ gasịrị (lee n'okpuru maka ozi ndị ọzọ):

Ka ọ na-erule 1902, 90% nke ala niile Africa nọ n'okpuruokpuru Europe. Ihe ka ukwuu n'ime Sahara bụ ndị France, mana mgbe a akpụkpọ Nnupụisi Mahdi, njedebe nke Nsogbu Fashoda na Voulet-Chanoine Mission, Sudan n'okpuruokpuru Britain na Ijipt, ebe Ijipt nọ n'okpuru ndị Britain tupu onye onye Britain na-echebe na 1914.

Ndị Britain meri mba ndị Boer n'Agha nke echiche nke Ndị Boer site na 1899 ruo 1902. Ịtali meri Libya na 1911, e kewara Morocco n'etiti ndị French na ndị Spain na 1912.

Ihe Ndị Ebumnuche na Agha Ntụte nke David Livingstone

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]
Ndị na-ere ahịa ohu na ndị ha dọọrọ n'agha na-eke agbụ ma jiri 'mkpanaka' kpuchie ha n'olu. Site na Akụkọ Livingstone

Otu n'ime ndị isi kwuru na ihe na-acha ya "bụ akwalite Ịgba ohu otu ugboro".[15] Tupu ọ na 1873, onye ozi ala ọzọ nke ajụjụ, David Livingstone, set oku maka agha ntụli aka zuru ụwa ọnụ iji merie ohu nke ndị Arab na-achịkwa n'Ebe Ọwụwa agha Afrịka. Ụzọ e si eme ya bụ "ịtọhapụ Afrịka" site na iwebata "azụmahịa, Iso Ụzọ akwụkwọ" na ireanya..[15]

Crowe, Craven, na Katzenellenbogen bụ ndị edemede nwara ime ka asụsụ ahụ dị nro ma yabụ ebumnuche nke nzukọ ahụ. Ha na-adọ aka ná ntị megide nkwenye gabigara oke na ọrụ ya na nkewa nke Africa, na-akwado ya nke ọma site n'ileghara ebumnuche na nsonaazụ nke nzukọ ahụ anya site na ịdọrọ uche gaa na nkwekọrịta abụọ e mere tupu na mgbe nzukọ ahụ gasịrị, n'agbanyeghị ma emechara ha ma soro ha n'omume. [1][2][3] Dịka ọmụmaatụ, Craven ajụla mmetụta iwu na akụ na ụba nke nzukọ ahụ.[2]

Otú ọ dị, mba ndị mechara sonye na Iwu Ikpeazụ leghaara ihe achọrọ e depụtara n'ime ya anya iji guzobe gọọmentị satellite ha, ikike ala, na azụmahịa maka abamuru nke mba ha, na akụ na ụba obodo ha.[16]

Mgbagwoju anya nke kọntinent Afrịka dị ka ndị Europe na-achị kama ihe ije dị ka ogbugbu a mere ka ndị na-amị ebe obibi na nke nwere ike na iri afọ ndị na-adịbeghị anya dị ka Mgbukpọ nke Rwanda na 1994..[17]

Nnyocha nke ndị ọkọ akụkọ ihe mere eme

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Ọ dịla anya ndị ọkọ akụkọ ihe mere eme gosipụtara Nzukọ Berlin dị ka nhazi nke Scramble for Africa [18] mana n'oge na-adịbeghị anya, ndị ọkà mmụta ajụla mmetụta iwu na akụ na ụba nke nzukọ ahụ. [2]

Ụfọdụ ụdị na ahụ bụ isi maka ụdị ala ọzọ. Onye Africa-Amerika na-akọ ihe mere eme W. E. B. Du Bois dere na 1948 na n'ihu mgbaàmà bụ akara ohu Atlantic n'ime ndị Africa bụ fim ụwa nke oge a bụ "nkewa nke Africa mgbe Agha Franco-Prussian ihe nke, nazọ nke Berlin 1884, mere ka ndị na-achị achị na-agbasa" akụ na "[onye bụ isi iwe eziokwu nke na ndị na Africa taa" ebubo na kọntinent ahụ.[t]

Ndị ọkọkpọ ihe mere eme ndị ọzọ na- anya na ike iwu na iwu mba ụwa ma na-arụ ụka [19] na ahụ bụ otu n'ime ọtụtụ ahụhụ (ahụsịa nke abụọ) n'etiti ndị na-achọ ịchị ala, [20] nke mere mgbe nzukọ ahụ gasịrị.

Hụkwa

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]
  • Nzukọ Na-emegide Ịgba Ohu na Brussels 1889-90
  • Mmetụta nke ọchịchị ndị dị n'Ebe Ọdịda Anyanwụ Europe na ọchịchị ndị dị

Ihe odide

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]
  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Katzenellenbogen (1996). "It didn't happen at Berlin: Politics, economics and ignorance in the setting of Africa's colonial boundaries.", in Nugent, P.: African Boundaries: Barriers, Conduits and Opportunities. London: Pinter, 21–34. Katzenellenbogen, S. (1996). "It didn't happen at Berlin: Politics, economics and ignorance in the setting of Africa's colonial boundaries.". In Nugent, P.; Asiwaju, A. I. (eds.). African Boundaries: Barriers, Conduits and Opportunities. London: Pinter. pp. 21–34.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Craven (2015). "Between law and history: the Berlin Conference of 1884–1885 and the logic of free trade". London Review of International Law 3: 31–59. DOI:10.1093/lril/lrv002. Craven, M. (2015). "Between law and history: the Berlin Conference of 1884–1885 and the logic of free trade". London Review of International Law. 3: 31–59. doi:10.1093/lril/lrv002.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Crowe (1942). The Berlin West African Conference, 1884–1885. London: Longmans Green. Crowe, S. E. (1942). The Berlin West African Conference, 1884–1885. London: Longmans Green.
  4. ↑ Paine (2024). "Endogenous Colonial Borders: Precolonial States and Geography in the Partition of Africa" (in en). American Political Science Review 119: 1–20. DOI:10.1017/S0003055424000054. ISSN 0003-0554. 
  5. ↑ Rosenberg. The Berlin Conference: Where a Continent Was Colonized. ThoughtCo. Retrieved on 19 September 2017.
  6. ↑ [[:de:s:General-Akte der Berliner Konferenz (Kongokonferenz)|General-Akte der Berliner Konferenz [Acte Général de la Conférence de Berlin]]], 26 February 1885.
  7. ↑ (10 March 2015) "Between law and history: the Berlin Conference of 1884–1885 and the logic of free trade". London Review of International Law. Retrieved on 2018-09-24. 
  8. ↑ David. BBC – History – British History in depth: Slavery and the 'Scramble for Africa'. bbc.co.uk/history. BBC. Retrieved on 19 September 2017.
  9. ↑ Cornelis (1991). "Stanley au service de Léopold II: La fondation de l'État Indépendant du Congo (1878–1885)", in Cornelis, S.: H.M. Stanley: Explorateur au Service du Roi. Tervuren: Royal Museum for Central Africa, 41–60 (53–54). 
  10. ↑ Thomson (1933). Fondation de l'État Indépendant du Congo: Un chapitre de l'histoire du partage de l'Afrique. Brussels: Lebègue, 177–189. 
  11. ↑ (1885–1886) Moniteur Belge / Belgisch Staatsblad. Brussels: Direction du Moniteur Belge, 22. 
  12. ↑ de Blij (1997). Geography: Realms, Regions, and Concepts. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. ISBN 9780471119463. 
  13. ↑ Mudimbe (May 1988). The Invention of Africa: Gnosis, Philosophy, and the Order of Knowledge.. IndianaUniversityPress. 
  14. ↑ Ekeh (Jan 1975). Colonialism and the Two Publics in Africa: A Theoretical Statement. CambridgeUniversityPress. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 BBC - History - British History in depth: Slavery and the 'Scramble for Africa' (en-GB). www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved on 2022-11-13.
  16. ↑ Gurminder K. Bhambra (3 July 2020). Why Is Mainstream International Relations Blind to Racism? (en-US). Foreign Policy. Retrieved on 2022-11-13.
  17. ↑ Celestin. "Impact of the Berlin Conference (1884–1885) on EAC Development: 140 Years After the Divide of Africa". International Journal of Political Science and Public Administration 6 (1): 25–47. 
  18. ↑ Matua (1995). "Why Redraw the Map of Africa: A Moral and Legal Inquiry". Harvard Law School 16 (4). 
  19. ↑ Aghie (2004). in Landauer: Imperialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law. Cambridge University Press. 
  20. ↑ Hargreaves (1963). Prelude to the Partition of West Africa.. Macmillam. 

Ebe e si nweta ya

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]
  • Chamberlain, Muriel E. (2014). Egwuregwu Maka Africa. London: Longman, 1974, 4th edn.  ISBN 0-582-36881-2ISBN 0-582-36881-2. 
  • [Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] "N'etiti iwu na akụkọ ihe mere eme: Nzukọ Berlin nke 1884-1885 na arụmụka nke azụmahịa n'efu". London Review of International Law 3, 31-59.
  • [Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] Nzukọ Berlin West Africa, 1884-1885. New York: Longmans, Green.  ISBN 0-8371-3287-8ISBN 0-8371-3287-8 (1981, mbipụta ọhụrụ). 
  • Förster, Stig, Wolfgang Justin Mommsen, na Ronald Edward Robinson, editọ. Bismarck, Europe na Africa: Nzukọ Berlin Africa 1884-1885 na mmalite nke nkewa (Oxford University Press, 1988) n'ịntanetị; isi 30 nke ndị ọkachamara.
  • [Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] Mmụọ Eze Leopold.  ISBN 0-395-75924-2ISBN 0-395-75924-2. 
  • [Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] O meghị na Berlin: ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị, akụ na ụba na amaghị ihe na nhazi nke ókèala ndị Afrịka na-achị. Na Nugent, P. na Asiwaju, A. I. (Eds.), ókèala Afrịka: Ihe mgbochi, ọwa na ohere. peeji nke 21-34.  London: Pinter.
  • [Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] Brazza, Ndụ Maka Africa.  ISBN 978-1-4259-1198-0ISBN 978-1-4259-1198-0. 
  • [Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji], Europe colonial na nnukwu mgbanwe nke Nzukọ Berlin (1884-1885), Paris, Le Manuscrit, coll. "Carrefours d'empires", 2013, 380 p.

Ịgụ ihe ọzọ

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]
  • [Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] Nmepụta nke ọdịnala: Westlake, Nzukọ Berlin na akụkọ ihe mere eme nke iwu mba ụwa (Klosterman, 2012).
  • [Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] "Nzukọ na Berlin na Ajụjụ West-Africa". Sayensị ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị Quarterly 1 (1).
  • Förster, Susanne, et al. "Nkwurịta okwu banyere ihe nketa nke ndị Germany na Berlin's Afrikanisches Viertel". International Journal of Heritage Studies 22.7 (2016): 515-529.
  • Frankema, Ewout, Jeffrey G. Williamson, na P. J. Woltjer. "Ihe kpatara akụ na ụba maka mkpọtụ West Africa? Mgbanwe azụmahịa na ọnụahịa ahịa nke 1835-1885." Journal of Economic History (2018): 231-267. n'ịntanetị
  • Harlow, Barbara, na Mia Carter, eds. Archives of Empire: Mpịakọta 2. The Scramble for Africa (Duke University Press, 2020).
  • [Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] "The Anti-Slavery Trade Campaign in Europe, 1888-90." na A Global History of Anti-Slav Politics in the Nineteenth Century (Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2013). 149-170 n'ịntanetị.
  • Nuzzo, Luigi (2012), Colonial Law, EGO - European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History. E nwetara ya na 25 Machị 2021 (pdf).
  • [Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] Otu Europe si emepebeghị Afrịka (1972) -
  • Onye na-azụ anụ, George "The Centennial of the West African Conference of Berlin, 1884-1885." Phylon 46#1 (1985), peeji nke 37-48.  n'ịntanetị
  • [Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] Belgium na Congo, 1885-1980 (Cambridge University Press, 2012). 289 peeji nke ISBN 978-0-521-19421-1
  • Waller, Bruce Bismarck na nkuku ụzọ: mgbanwe nke iwu mba ọzọ nke Germany mgbe Congress nke Berlin, 1878-1880 (1974) onlinen'ịntanetị
  • Yao, Joanne (2022) "Ike nke Geographical Imaginaries na European International Order: Colonialism, 1884-85 Berlin Conference, na Model International Organizations". Òtù Mba Nile.

Njikọ mpụga

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Templeeti:Sister project links

Ewepụtara site na "https://ig.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berlin_Conference&oldid=495867"