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Black feminism

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Ihe omuma:

Dị ka ụmụ nwanyị ojii si kwuo, agbụrụ, okike, na ịkpa ókè klaasị bụ akụkụ nke otu usoro ọchịchị, nke Bell Hooks na-akpọ "onyeisi ọcha, onye isi ọchịchị"; n'ihi njikọ ha, ha na-ejikọta na-emepụta ihe karịrị ịkpa ókè agbụrụ na mmekọahụ n'onwe ha. Ahụmahụ nke ịbụ Black, dị ka ozizi si kwuo, enweghị ike ịghọta n'ihe gbasara ịbụ Black ma ọ bụ nwanyị ma a ghaghị ịkọwa ya site na intersectionality, [1] okwu nke ọkà mmụta iwu bụ Kimberlé Crenshaw chepụtara na 1989. Echiche a kwekọrọ na echiche Deborah K. King nke "ọtụtụ ihe ize ndụ" nke na-azọrọ na ọ bụghị nanị na-eme ka njirimara, dị ka Crenphaw na-eduga n'ọtụtụ mmadụ, dị ka Crenphaw na-eduga n'ọtụtụ njirimara. ụdị mmegbu ka njọ megide ụmụ nwanyị ojii.[2] Echiche ndị a na-atụ aro na njirimara ọ bụla - ịbụ oji na ịbụ nwanyị - kwesịrị ịtụle ma n'onwe ya na maka mmetụta ha jikọtara ya, nke njirimara jikọtara ọnụ na-ewusi ibe ya ike, ma nwee ike iduga n'ụdị ahaghị nhata.[3][4].

Ndị na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị ojii na United States buru ụzọ jiri oghere nke ụmụ nwanyị ojii ghọta ka oke ndị ọcha na ndị nna ochie si kpakọrịta iji kpụzie ụfọdụ ahụmịhe ụmụ nwanyị ojii. Ndị na-eme oji na ndị nwere ọgụgụ isi hiwere otu dị ka National Association of Colored Women (NACW) na National Council of Negro Women (NCNW). [1] Ụmụ nwanyị ojii ghọrọ ndị a ma ama na 1960s, dịka ndị na-akwado ikike obodo chụpụrụ ụmụ nwanyị n'ọkwá ọchịchị, ndị inyom na-elekwasịkwa anya n'ihe ha na-eme n'ihe metụtara ụmụ nwanyị etiti ọcha. Site na 1970s ruo 1980s, Black feminists hibere otu ndị kwuru gbasara ọrụ ụmụ nwanyị ojii na mba ojii, nnwere onwe nwoke nwere mmasị nwoke, na nwanyị nke abụọ. [2] Alice Walker, mgbịrịgba nko, Kimberlé Crenshaw, Angela Davis, na Patricia Hill Collins apụtala dị ka ndị isi agụmakwụkwọ na Black Feminism, ebe ụfọdụ ndị isi ojii a ma ama akwadola mkparịta ụka dị egwu banyere nwanyị ojii.[3][4]

Akụkọ mmalite

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Narị afọ nke 19

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Echiche ụmụ nwanyị ojii sitere n'ụdị mmegbu dị iche iche ụmụ nwanyị ojii chere ihu, malite n'eziokwu ahụ bụ na a kpọtara ọtụtụ ụmụ nwanyị Africa America na America dị ka ndị ohu. Mmegbu a abụghị naanị nke anụ ahụ. Dị ka Patricia Hill Collins na-eme ka o doo anya, mmegbu "na-akọwa ọnọdụ ọ bụla na-ezighị ezi ebe, n'usoro na ogologo oge, otu ìgwè na-egbochi otu ọzọ ịnweta ihe onwunwe nke ọha mmadụ. "N'iburu nke a n'uche, ụmụ nwanyị Africa-America na-enwekwa mmegbu nke echiche ọgụgụ isi ha iji chekwaa akụkọ kachasị (acha ọcha, nwoke). [1]

Ụmụ nwanyị ojii achọtala ịghọta ọnọdụ ha n'ime usoro mmegbu, mgbe ahụ, a na-egosipụta nke a na okwu a ma ama nke Sojourner Truth na 1851 Women's Convention na Akron, Ohio. Okwu eziokwu lekwasịrị anya na mmeso na-ezughị oke nke ụmụ nwanyị ojii, n'agbanyeghị ikike ha nwere ime otu ọrụ ahụ ma nagide otu ihe isi ike ahụ ụmụ nwoke. N'okwu ya, Sojourner Truth na-ekwu, "Enwere m ike dị ka nwoke ọ bụla, ma nwee ike ịrụ ọrụ dị ukwuu dị ka nwoke niile. A kọwo m na-akọ ugbo ma na-ewepụta ma na-egbutu ma na-egbubi, ma nwoke ọ bụla nwere ike ime ihe karịrị nke ahụ? . . Enwere m ike iburu ihe dị ka nwoke onye ọ bụla. " Okwu a kpọtụrụ arụmụka maka ikike nhata nke agbụrụ na, na-emesi mkpa maka ịha nhata ike.[2]

Akwụkwọ A Voice from the South (1892), nke Anna Julia Cooper dere ka a na-ekwu na ọ bụ otu n'ime akwụkwọ mbụ na-egosipụta echiche ụmụ nwanyị ojii.[3] Onye edemede na onye na-eme ngagharị iwe nke oge Cooper, Frances Ellen Watkins Harper, tụrụ aro "ụfọdụ n'ime ajụjụ ndị kachasị mkpa gbasara agbụrụ, okike, na ọrụ nke Reconstruction na narị afọ nke iri na itoolu". Dị ka Harper si kwuo, ụmụ nwanyị ọcha chọrọ ikike ịtụ vootu maka agụmakwụkwọ, mana "ụmụ nwanyị ojii chọrọ ịtụ vootu, ọ bụghị dị ka ụdị agụmakwụkwọ. "[4] N'afọ 1890, Ida B. Wells, onye nta akụkọ na onye na-eme ngagharị iwe, ghọrọ onye a ma ama maka ịchọ eziokwu banyere igbu ndị isi ojii, isiokwu nke ọtụtụ ndị ọcha na-ezere.[5]

1900 ruo 1960

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

N'oge a na-esote ịgba ohu, ndị isi ojii nwere ọgụgụ isi na ndị na-eme ngagharị iwe, dị ka Sojourner Truth, Anna Julia Cooper, Ida B. Wells, Mary Church Terrell, na Frances Harper, setịpụrụ ụkpụrụ ndị ga-abụ ihe ndabere maka ụmụ nwanyị ojii.[6] Ụmụ nwanyị ndị a rụzuru ihe ndị a na-anụtụbeghị maka ụmụ nwanyị ojii, dị ka ikwu okwu ihu ọha, ịlụ ọgụ maka ikike ịtụ vootu, na inyere ndị chọrọ enyemaka aka mgbe Reconstruction gasịrị. Otú ọ dị, n'oge na-adịghị anya, esemokwu malitere n'etiti ndị ọcha na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị, ọbụna ndị na-arụsi ọrụ ike na mwepụ, na ndị na-ahụkarị maka ụmụ nwanyị ojii.

Suffrage bụ otu n'ime mpaghara mbụ nke nkewa n'etiti ụmụ nwanyị ọcha na ndị ojii. Ọ bụ ezie na ụmụ nwanyị dị ka otu nọ na-arị elu na njedebe 1800s na mmalite 1900s, ụmụ nwanyị ojii na-ahapụkarị ma na-eleghara anya site n'aka ndị ọcha feminists nke mmegharị ahụ. Agbanyeghị, nke a akwụsịghị ndị nwanyị ojii, bụ ndị ga-emecha mepụta ụzọ ha dị iche iche ọgụ maka ihe kpatara ya. Site na nke a, National Association of Colored Women's Clubs (NACWC) tọrọ ntọala na 1904, National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) tọrọ ntọala na 1909, na National Association of Wage Earners tọrọ ntọala na 1921.

Ndị edemede ojii nke mmalite afọ 1900 ndị na-eme isiokwu gụnyere onye nkuzi na onye na-eme ihe ike Mary Church Terrell na Zora Neale Hurston. N'akwụkwọ akụkọ ndụ ya A Colored Woman in a White World (1940), Terrell kọrọ ahụmahụ ya na ịkpa ókè agbụrụ na ịkpa oke nwoke na nwanyị.[7] Ọnụ ọgụgụ dị ukwuu nke ọrụ Hurston bipụtara gụnyere akwụkwọ akụkọ Their Eyes Were Watching God (1937) nke gosipụtara nwanyị siri ike na Janie Crawford . [8]

Ọ bụ ezie na afọ iri dị n'etiti Ndezigharị nke 19 na Iwu United States (1920) na 1960 adịghị ewere dị ka "efegharị" nke mmemme ụmụ nwanyị, ọ bụ oge dị mkpa karịsịa na mmepe nke ọrụ nwa nwanyị ojii.[1]. N'ime oge a, ndị inyom ojii ole na ole sonyeere ndị otu ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị Kọmunist ma ọ bụ lekwasị anya na ọrụ otu. Ọ bụ ezie na ọ bụghị ha nile ka a kọwara dị ka ndị inyom, echiche ha gụnyere ọrụ bụ isi nke bụ isi n'echiche nke intersectionality - njikọ nke agbụrụ, okike, na klaasị. Na 1940, dịka ọmụmaatụ, Esther V. Cooper (née Esther Cooper Jackson) dere akwụkwọ edemede MA nke akpọrọ "The Negro Woman Domestic Worker in Relation to Trade Unionism" [2] Na 1949, Claudia Jones dere "Njedebe nke ileghara nsogbu nke ụmụ nwanyị ojii anya" anya.[3]

Mgbalị ndị ọzọ ụmụ nwanyị na nhazi mere gburugburu ikpe dị iche iche nke ime ihe ike agbụrụ na mmekọahụ. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, Esther Cooper na Rosa Parks haziri iji nyere Recy Taylor aka. N'afọ 1944, ndị otu dinara Taylor n'ike; Parks na Cooper nwara ime ka ndị ahụ kpụpụ ikpe ziri ezi.[9] Ndị Black feminist activists lekwasịrị anya n'okwu ndị ọzọ yiri ya, dị ka njide 1949 na ikpe ọnwụ e nyere Rosa Lee Ingram, onye a na-eme ihe ike mmekọahụ. Ndị na-agbachitere Ingram gụnyere onye Black feminist a ma ama Mary Church Terrell, onye bụ octogenarian n'oge ahụ.[10]

N'agbanyeghị ịmalite ngagharị iwe, ịhazi na ịkpata ego, ịgwa ndị obodo okwu, na ịtọhapụ atụmatụ, ndị ọkọ akụkọ ihe mere eme na-elegharakarị ụmụ nwanyị nọ n'ọkwa ọchịchị anya site n'aka ndị na-ahụ maka ikike obodo, bụ nke malitere n'ụzọ siri ike na 1950s.[1] Ọtụtụ mmemme, dị ka boycott ụgbọ ala Montgomery, gara nke ọma n'ihi ụmụ nwanyị na-agbasa okwu ahụ. N'oge boycott ụgbọ ala Montgomery, e mere akwụkwọ mpịakọta 35,000 ma nyefee ya mgbe e jidere Rosa Parks. Georgia Gilmore, mgbe a chụrụ ya n'ọrụ dị ka osi nri ma tinye ya n'ọrụ ndị ọzọ na Montgomery maka ntinye aka ya na boycott ahụ, haziri From Nowhere Club, otu ndị na-eme achịcha na nri iji kwado mgbalị ahụ.[2]

Akụkọ ihe mere eme

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Afọ 1960 na 1970

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Òtù na-ahụ maka ihe ndị ruuru mmadụ

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N'ime ọkara nke abụọ nke narị afọ nke iri abụọ, Black femism dị ka òtù ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị na nke mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya sitere na mmetụta ụmụ nwanyị ojii nke enweghị afọ ojuju na ma òtù ikike obodo na òtù ụmụ nwanyị nke 1960s na 1970s. Otu n'ime nkwupụta ntọala nke Black-wing femism bụ "An Argument for Black Women's Liberation as a Revolutionary Force," nke Mary Ann Weathers dere ma bipụta ya na Febụwarị 1969 na magazin Cell 16 nke ụmụ nwanyị No More Fun and Games: A Journal of Female Liberation . Weathers na-ekwu na ya kwenyere na "a ga-ewere nnwere onwe ụmụ nwanyị dị ka atụmatụ maka njikọ aka na mgbanwe niile nke ụmụ nwanyị, ụmụ nwoke, na ụmụaka mejupụtara", mana ọ na-ekwu nde "[ndị inyom ga-amalite ihe a na-agagharị" n'ihi na:[w]   Tụkwasị na nke a, ndị na-ede egwu dị ka Nina Simone, kwadoro ikpe ziri ezi nke ndị isi ojii ma nwee mmetụta na Civil Rights Movement, site na egwu dị ka Mississippi Goddamn.[11] Abụ ya, nke a na-eme n'ụdị mkpesa, na-eme ka mmegbu agbụrụ na nke nwoke na nwanyị na-emegide n'oge ahụ.[12] Ọ bụ ezie na ụfọdụ ndị ọzọ, dị ka Tammy Kernodle, na-ekwu na abụ ya na-ejikọta ya na ndị isi ojii na-alụ ọgụ karịa Civil Rights Movement, onyinye ya ka na-elekwasị anya na iguzogide ịkpa ókè agbụrụ na ịkwalite ikike maka ndị isi ojii. N'ozuzu, na-ekwupụta mkpa nke Civil Rights Movement.[11]

Ọbụghị naanị na otu ndọrọndọrọ ikike obodo lekwasịrị anya na mmegbu a na-emegbu ndị nwoke ojii, mana ọtụtụ ụmụ nwanyị ojii chere oke ịkpa oke nwoke na nwanyị ihu na otu ndị nọbu n'ihu ọha, dị ka kọmitii nzukọ ụmụ akwụkwọ.[1]. N'ime mmegharị ahụ, ndị ikom nwere ọnọdụ dị ike. Ndị na-akwado ikike ụmụ nwanyị ojii achọghị ka mmegharị ahụ bụrụ ọgụ maka ikike ụmụ nwoke ojii naanị; ha chọrọ ịgụnye ikike ụmụ nwanyị ojii.[2] Enwere ike ịhụ nke a n'okwu e nyere na 1963 na National Council of Negro Women Convention, ebe Pauli Murray kwuru na "Nwanyị Negro enweghịzi ike iwepụ ma ọ bụ gbochie ọgụ megide mmekọahụ na ọgụ maka ikike obodo mana ọ ghaghị ịnọgide na-alụ ọgụ n'otu oge".[3] Murray gara n'ihu n'arụ ụka na ntinye nke ụmụ nwanyị ojii na Civil Rights Movement bụ ihe dị mkpa maka ịga nke ọma nke Movement na ọganihu nke ọha mmadụ ọ nọchiri anya ya.[3] Ndị na-ahụ maka nwanyị ojii chere na ha kwesịrị inwe nzukọ nke ha n'ihi na iwe ndị na-ele ụmụ nwanyị ọcha dị iche na nke ha ma na-akwado ụmụ nwanyị ọcha.[4]

N'afọ ndị 1960, Kọmitii Na-ahụ Maka Nhazi Ụmụ akwụkwọ (SNCC) na-arụsi ọrụ ike ma lekwasị anya n'inweta "usoro ikpe ziri ezi" site na usoro udo. Ọ bụ Ella Baker guzobere SNCC. Baker bụ onye otu National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) na Southern Christian Leadership Council (SCLC) . Mgbe Baker jere ozi dị ka odeakwụkwọ ukwu nke SCLC nke Martin Luther King Jr., a kpughere ya na usoro nhazi nke nzukọ ahụ. Baker jụrụ ihe ọ hụrụ dị ka ịkpa ókè nwoke na nwanyị n'ime NAACP na SCLC ma chọọ ịmalite nzukọ nke ya na usoro nhata, na-enye ụmụ nwanyị ohere ikwupụta mkpa ha.[13][14]

N'afọ 1964, na nzaghachi SNNC na Waveland, Mississippi, ndị otu ahụ kwurịtara ọrụ ụmụ nwanyị ma kwuo maka ịkpa ókè nwoke na nwanyị nke mere n'ime otu ahụ.[15] Otu ìgwè ụmụ nwanyị nọ na SNCC (ndị e mesịrị mara dị ka ndị White allies Mary King na Casey Hayden) mara ụzọ e si emeso ụmụ nwanyị mgbe ha wepụtara "SNCC Position Paper (Women in the Movement) ". Akwụkwọ akụkọ ahụ depụtara ihe omume iri na otu ebe a na-emeso ụmụ nwanyị dị ka ndị nọ n'okpuru ụmụ nwoke. Dị ka akwụkwọ akụkọ ahụ si kwuo, ụmụ nwanyị nọ na SNCC enweghị ohere ịghọ ihu nke nzukọ ahụ, ndị isi, n'ihi na e kenyere ha ọrụ ndị ụkọchukwu na idebe ụlọ, ebe ụmụ nwoke na-etinye aka na mkpebi.

Mgbe a họpụtara Stokely Carmichael ka ọ bụrụ onye isi oche nke SNCC na 1966, ọ tụgharịrị ụzọ nzukọ ahụ gaa na Black Power na Black nationalism.[16] Ọ bụ ezie na a na-ekwukarị na ụmụ nwanyị ojii nọ na SNCC nọ n'okpuru ọchịchị Carmichael, Carmichael họpụtara ọtụtụ ụmụ nwanyị ka ha bụrụ ndị nduzi ọrụ n'oge ọ bụ onyeisi oche. Ka ọ na-erule ọkara ikpeazụ nke afọ 1960, ọtụtụ ụmụ nwanyị na-ahụ maka ọrụ SNCC karịa n'oge ọkara mbụ. N'agbanyeghị ọganihu ndị a, ndị ikom nọ n'ọkwá ndị isi SNCC n'oge niile ọ dị, nke mechiri na ọgba aghara n'ime afọ ole na ole mgbe Carmichael gbara arụkwaghịm n'òtù ahụ na 1967.[17]

Angela Davis na-ekwu okwu na Mahadum Alberta na Machị 28, 2006

Ihe nnọchianya na-abụghị nke gọọmentị nke Black femism na ngwụcha afọ 60, njikọta nke aka elu nke Black Power, na ihe nnọchianya nke kpakpando maka Venus, gosipụtara njikọ nke echiche nke Black Power na militant femism. E nwere echiche ụfọdụ, dị ka "nkatọ gbasara Ịkpa ókè agbụrụ, malite na ịgba ohu". N'agbanyeghị nke a, ụmụ nwanyị ojii nwere ihe mere ha ji bụrụ ndị nweere onwe ha na mba ojii, dị ka ụfọdụ ndị nkatọ si kwuo, n'ihi na ọ nwetara naanị niche n'ime usoro nwoke na nwanyị na nke nwoke nke mba ojii.[18][19]

Ugboro nke Abụọ nke Ụmụ nwanyị

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Nzọụkwụ nke abụọ nke ụmụ nwanyị pụtara n'afọ ndị 1960, nke Betty Friedan duziri. Ụfọdụ ụmụ nwanyị ojii chere na ndị isi nke ngalaba ndị isi nke usoro ụmụ nwanyị nke abụọ, nke na-akwado ikike ụmụ nwanyị ịrụ ọrụ n'èzí ụlọ na mgbasawanye nke ikike ọmụmụ. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, inweta ike ịrụ ọrụ n'èzí ụlọ abụghị ihe ụmụ nwanyị ojii rụzuru ebe ọ bụ na ọtụtụ ụmụ nwanyị ojii ga-arụ ọrụ n'ime na n'èstre ụlọ ruo ọtụtụ ọgbọ n'ihi ịda ogbenye.[20]

Ebili nke abụọ nke ntọhapụ ụmụ nwanyị pụtara na 1960, nke Betty Friedan duziri, onye ọrụ ya bụ The Feminine Mystique lekwasịrị anya na "nsogbu a na-akpọghị aha" - na-ezo aka na enweghị ụmụ nwanyị enweghị ohere ọrụ. Ụmụnwaanyị ndị isi ojii chere na a na-akpapụ ha n'otu n'otu n'otu n'ime ọha mmadụ na-achị achị nke ụmụ nwanyị nke abụọ, ebe ọ bụ na a hụghị inweta ọrụ n'èzí ụlọ dịka ihe ọ rụpụtara; ịbụ onye na-elekọta ụlọ bụ nsogbu nke etiti, na ụmụ nwanyị ojii na-arụ ọrụ n'ime na n'èzí ụlọ ruo ọtụtụ ọgbọ n'ihi ịda ogbenye. Frances Beale na-ede, sị, "Ọdịiche ọzọ dị mkpa bụ na nnwere onwe nke ndị inyom na-acha ọcha bụ isi na klas nke etiti. Ole na ole n'ime ụmụ nwanyị ndị a nwetara nsogbu akụ na ụba nke ọtụtụ ụmụ nwanyị ojii na-atachi obi kwa ụbọchị. Ọ bụrụ na ha achọpụta ọrụ ụlọ na-eweda ala na enweghị ịhụnanya, ha nwere ike ịzụta nnwere onwe ha - na-emekarị site n'ịkwụ ụgwọ nwa agbọghọ ojii. [1] [2]

Tụkwasị na nke a, dịka Angela Davis mechara dee, mgbe ụmụ nwanyị Afro-American na ụmụ nwanyị ọcha nọ n'okpuru ọtụtụ ite ime na-enweghị isi ma nwee afọ ime na nzuzo, ụmụ nwanyị Aflo-American na-ata ahụhụ site na mmemme ịwa ahụ nke a na-etinyeghị na mkparịta ụka banyere ikpe ziri ezi nke ọmụmụ.

Ndị ọkà mmụta Black Feminist dị ka Shirley Chisholm na Dorthy Roberts emeela ka a mara eziokwu ahụ bụ na ụmụ nwanyị Black na-emetụta n'ụzọ na-ekwesịghị ekwesị site na iwu ọmụmụ, ịmụ nwa, na ite ime. Tupu Roe v. Wade agafee na 1973, Chisholm bụ onye na-akwado ikike ịmụ nwa ma kwuo na "anyị ga-akwụsị ime ime iwu". N'afọ 1999, ọrụ Roberts lekwasịrị anya n'ịkatọ ihe a na-akpọ "ọrịa na-efe efe" nke mere ka ndị nne ojii dị ime bụrụ ndị omempụ ma tụọ ndị mkpọrọ - n'agbanyeghị eziokwu ahụ bụ na ndị nne ọcha nwere ike, ma ọ bụrụ na ọ bụghị karịa, itinye aka n'iji ọgwụ eme ihe mgbe ha dị ime. Ikpe ndị a mere ka a chịkwaa ikike ịmụ nwa dị ka ihe ọzọ na-anọchi anya ịtụ mkpọrọ, na ikpe ụmụ nwanyị ojii ikpe n'ọnụ ọgụgụ dị elu karịa ndị ọcha ibe ha. Ndị na-eme nchọpụta gbaghaara nkwupụta nke "ọrịa na-efe efe" dịka achọtabeghị ihe akaebe nke ọnọdụ ahụike na-emebi emebi.[21][22]


N'ime narị afọ nke iri abụọ, ụmụ nwanyị ojii gbanwere n'ụzọ dị iche na ụmụ nwanyị. Na ngwụcha afọ 1900, ndị edemede ọhụrụ dị ka Alice Walker nwere mmetụta n'ebe ahụ, ndị akwụkwọ ha mere ka a kpọọ ya femininism, nke mesiri ike oke mmegbu ụmụ nwanyị ojii na-eche ihu ma e jiri ya tụnyere ụmụ nwanyị ọcha ma, maka ya, gụnyere "ịdị n'otu nke ihe a kpọrọ mmadụ".[6]

Ụmụ nwanyị ojii

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Black lesbian feminism, as a political identity and movement, has emerged from a complex set of grievances related to race, gender, social status, and sexual orientation.[1] Black lesbian women have been marginalized within black-dominated organizations and have been marginalized not only in the second wave of feminism (as Betty Friedan, who resisted making women's rights a part of her political agenda, has demonstrated) but also within the feminist movement itself. Here, the problem is perhaps more than just race. Among white, middle-class feminists, the butch/femne form of sexuality, which is common among black and working-class women, has often been viewed as a subversion of masculinity.[2]

N'ime afọ ndị 1970s, ndị na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị mepụtara ngalaba nke ha nke ụmụ nwanyị na nzaghachi maka enweghị mmasị nke ụmụ nwanyị nke abụọ iji nabata ebumnuche ha. Ha mepụtara atụmatụ agha, na-ama homophobia aka n'ụzọ sara mbara ma na-achọ ebe a na-akwanyere ùgwù n'ime ụmụ nwanyị. Ụfọdụ na-akwado ma na-anwale nkewa zuru oke na ụmụ nwoke dịka o kwere mee. Echiche ndị a nkewa na-eme ka ndị Black lesbian femists na-etinye aka na Black Power movements ma na-emekarị ka mmetụta ha nke nke iche iche site na otu ndị ọcha na-eduzi. Dị ka Anita Cornwell kwuru, "Mgbe ịgba égbè na-amalite, Black ọ bụla bụ egwuregwu ziri ezi. mgbọ anaghị enye nsogbu ma mụ na nwanyị ma ọ bụ nwoke na-ehi ụra".[23]

N'afọ 1970, oge dị mkpa maka ụmụ nwanyị nwanyị nwere nwanyị ojii mere na Mgbakọ Ọchịchị Ndị Ọchịchị Black Panther's Revolutionary na Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Ọtụtụ ndị nwanyị nwere mmasị nwanyị ojii zutere otu ndị ọcha nwanyị nwanyị nwere mmasị nwanyị gbasara ihe ha hụrụ dị ka ebumnuche kewapụrụ agbụrụ. Ka emechara mmemme a, ọtụtụ otu bidoro tinye ma hazie ndọrọndọrọ ọchịchị Black Lesbian. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, na 1973, e hiwere National Black Feminist Organisation wee tinye atụmatụ ụmụ nwanyị.[1] Na 1975, e hiwere Combahee River Collective site na ahụmịhe na mmetụta nke mmekọahụ na mmegharị Black Power na ịkpa ókè agbụrụ na mmegharị nwanyị nwanyị nwere mmasị nwanyị.[2]. Isi ihe ndị otu a lekwasịrị anya bụ ịgbagha ihe ha hụrụ dị ka usoro mmegbu nke jikọtara ọnụ na ime ka a mara usoro ndị a.[3]

N'afọ 1978, e guzobere National Coalition of Black Lesbians and Gays.[23] Na mgbakwunye na ọtụtụ òtù ndị lekwasịrị anya na ụmụ nwanyị Black, e nwere ọtụtụ ndị edemede nyere aka na mmegharị a, dị ka Audre Lorde, Barbara Smith, Pat Parker, June Jọdan, Darlene Pagano, Kate Rushin, Doris Davenport, Cheryl Clarke, Margaret Sloan-Hunter, na ọtụtụ ndị ọzọ.[24]

Afọ 1980 na 1990

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

African Feminism na Black Feminist Thought

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Ọ bụ ezie na ụmụ nwanyị ojii na Amerịka na-enweta ihe ngosi site na mmegharị dị ka Combahee River Collective, omenala ọgụgụ isi na ndị na-eme ihe ike na-apụta n'ofe Afrịka. Mgbalị ndị a na-ama usoro ọchịchị ndị ọchịchị na ndị inyom ọdịda anyanwụ aka nke na-emekarị ka epistemologies nke Afrịka ghara ịdị. Site na ngwụcha afọ 1970 gaa n'ihu, Association of African Women for Research and Development (AAWORD) na Development Alternatives with Women for a New Era (DAWN) ghọrọ isi ihe na-akọwapụta ụmụ nwanyị n'ìhè nke eziokwu mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya n'Africa karịa usoro ndị si mba ọzọ.

Ndị ọkà mmụta, gụnyere Amina Mama, Filomina Chioma Steady, na Molara Ogundipe-Leslie, katọrọ mmeri nke Women-in-Development (WID), nke gosipụtara ụmụ nwanyị dị ka ndị na-anabata enyemaka na-enweghị isi, ma kama kpọọ maka nyocha ụmụ nwanyị dabere na ọnọdụ Afrịka. [25] Mama kwusiri ike na agụmakwụkwọ ụmụ nwanyị n'Africa ga-edozi nchụpụ na-aga n'ihu nke ụmụ nwanyị n"agbanyeghị ọtụtụ iri afọ nke iwu mmepe.[26] Steady kwuru na atụmatụ nyocha nke ụlọ ọrụ ụwa na-etinye na-emekarị ka sayensị mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya nke Afrịka site na ihe ndị dị mkpa na Eurocentric. N'otu oge ahụ, echiche Ogundipe-Leslie nke Stiwanism (Social Transformation Including Women in Africa) jikọtara nha nhata nwoke na nwanyị na iwu mba na-ewu ala.[27]

Echiche ụmụ nwanyị nke Africa enyochala otú akụkọ ihe mere eme na omume ncheta si emepụta ncheta. Site n'idozi oghere na ịgbachi nkịtị n'ihe ndekọ akụkọ ihe mere eme, ndị na-eme nchọpụta na ndị na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị n'Afrịka achọtala iweghachite ahụmịhe ụmụ nwanyị nke e wepụrụ na akụkọ gọọmentị.[28] N'ihe ndekọ obodo, mmemme agụmakwụkwọ, na atụmatụ ihe ngosi nka, usoro ndị a na-emeso akwụkwọ dị ka ụdị ikpe ziri ezi na nlekọta otu, na-ekwusi ike na nlekọta mpaghara na ibu ọrụ omume iji nọchite anya akụkọ ihe mere eme ụmụ nwanyị n'ụzọ ziri ezi.[29][30]

Ụlọ ọrụ ụmụ nwanyị nke oge a na ndị ọkà mmụta nọ na Ghana anọgidewo na-arụ ọrụ a site na idu ndú na ọchịchị ime obodo, agụmakwụkwọ, na omenala ọha.[31] Omume ndị a na-eme ka ụmụ nwanyị ghara ịbụ ndị na-emepe emepe kama dị ka ndị na-ekere òkè na ndị na-ahụ maka ọdịnihu akụkọ ihe mere eme ha. N'echiche a, ụmụ nwanyị Afrịka na-arụ ọrụ n'otu oge dị ka agụmakwụkwọ na dị ka akụkọ ihe mere eme ọha, na-agbanwe ihe ndekọ ahụ site na ebe a na-ahapụ ya gaa na nke a na-ahụ anya na nlekọta.

Omenala hip-hop

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Otu n'ime mmegharị kachasị emetụta maka ụmụ nwanyị ojii na 1980 na 1990 bụ egwu hip-hop. Ihe nkiri hip-hop New York bụ ndị nwoke rapper na-achị ọtụtụ ndị na-emepụta ihe na-elekwasị anya na rappers dị ka Notorious B.I.G. na Sean "Diddy" Combs. Enwere ike ikwu na mpụta nke ụmụ nwanyị emcees na-agbasawanye ọnụnọ ụmụ nwanyị ojii na egwu n'oge a; ndị nka na-ewu ewu na 1980 dị ka MC Lyte, Queen Latifah, na Salt-N-Pepa meghere ụzọ maka ndị na-ese nwanyị ojii. [1] N'ime 1980s na 1990s, e kewara ndị na-agụ ụmụ nwanyị ojii ụzọ anọ, na-ejikọtakarị ma ọ bụ na-ejikọta ọtụtụ aha. Ụdị ndị ahụ gụnyere "Nne Queen", onye maara ihe, Afro-centric, na nwa agbọghọ na-eme ihe ike; "Nwa agbọghọ Fly", nwa agbọghọ mara mma ma na-ekwu okwu nke nwere ụdị na àgwà dị iche iche; "Nwanne nwanyị nwere àgwà", nwa agbọghọ na-enupụ isi nke ukwuu nke na-agbagha echiche ndị nna ochie; na "Lesbian", nwa agbọghọ na-eme mgbanwe nke gbochiri echiche heteronormative.[1] Ọ bụ ezie na otu atọ mbụ pụtara na 80s, a naghị amata ụdị "Lesbian" ruo mgbe 90s, na-ewu ewu site na ntọhapụ nke abụ Queen Pen, "Enyi nwanyị;" ruo mgbe ahụ, e boro ndị na-ese hip-hop ebubo na ha bụ nwoke na nwanyị. Ụmụ nwanyị ojii na-eji ụdị ndị a, n'ụdị dị iche iche nke ihe oyiyi ha, iji dozie nsogbu ndị na-emetụta ụmụ nwanyị na ụmụ nwanyị ojii na ịkwagide ókèala nke ụlọ ọrụ na-adịghị mma na nke mmekọ nwoke na nwanyị.[1]

N'afọ ndị 1990, Lil'Kim, onye bịanyere aka na Biggie Smalls' Junior MAFIA. akara, mere ka a mara ozi ya.[1] O nwetara ihe oyiyi nke nnwere onwe na nkasi obi siri ike n'ime ahụ ya. Ọ gbara aka n'echiche ndị dị na hip-hop na ụmụ nwanyị nọ ebe ahụ iji merie ikike nwoke. N'ime omenala hip-hop, Lil'Kim gbara aka n'echiche bụ na ụmụ nwanyị ojii bụ ndị a na-apụghị imeri emeri n'ihi na "ihere adịghị eme ya igosipụta enweghị ntụkwasị obi na mgba ya".[2] Ọtụtụ ndị kwenyere na ụda hip-hop ọdịnala na-ajụ nkwupụta ihu ọha Lil'Kim na nkwupụta nke a na-ahụtụbeghị mbụ. Lil'Kim guzoro n'okwu ya ma ọ dịbeghị mgbe ọ rịọrọ mgbaghara maka onye ọ bụ. Faith Evans bụ nwanyị ọzọ na-ese ihe mebiri ihe mgbochi na ụwa hip-hop. Mgbe ọ dị naanị afọ 21, ọ bụ nwanyị mbụ na-ese ihe nke bịanyere aka na Bad Boy Records. Faith Evans nọrọ ihe karịrị afọ 20 na ụlọ ọrụ egwu na-alụ ọgụ megide ịkpa oke nwoke na nwanyị na nsogbu dị na ụlọ ọrụ ebe ụmụ nwoke bụ ndị na-emepụta ihe na ndị na-eme ihe nkiri.[1]

Hip-hop feminism, nke Joan Morgan chepụtara na 1999, ka a na-ewere dị ka alaka nke nwanyị ojii.[1] Onye edemede Gwendolyn D. Pough na-akọwa hip-hop feminism dị ka "nabata omenala hip-hop" ma na-akwado megide ịkpa ókè nwoke na nwanyị n'ime omenala. Ọ na-arụ ụka na hip-hop feminism nwere nna ochie na nwa nwanyị ojii na nke ọcha, na-ejikọta ọrụ na ihe mgbaru ọsọ nke obodo abụọ ahụ ma mee ka ha abụọ nyochaa ịkpa ókè agbụrụ, klaasị, na okike.[2].

Ndị edemede bụ ndị isi maka ụmụ nwanyị ojii dịka Joan Morgan, Denise Cooper, na ndị ọzọ sitere na Third Wave of Black femism jikọtara mmasị ha maka ọdịbendị hip-hop na ụmụ nwanyị ojii ma ọ bụ ụmụ nwanyị, n'ikpeazụ na-eduga na mmalite nke ụmụ nwanyị hip-hop.[32]

Mgbanwe ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị nke afọ 1980 na 1990 nyere aka mepụta ụmụ nwanyị hip-hop. N'ụzọ doro anya, iwepụ mmemme ọdịmma na omume nkwenye, mpụta nke ọrịa AIDS, na mmụba nke ọdịiche agbụrụ na-arụ ọrụ dị ka ihe na-akpali ịmepụta ụdị ọhụrụ, dị iche nke ụmụ nwanyị ojii: ụmụ nwanyị hip-hop.[33]

Na narị afọ nke iri abụọ na otu, usoro dijitalụ ọhụrụ agbanweela ụmụ nwanyị ojii, na-emepụta ụzọ ọhụrụ maka ime ihe ike. Dị ka Catherine Steele kwuru n'akwụkwọ ya Digital Black Feminism (2021), ịntanetị na usoro mgbasa ozi mmekọrịta enyela ndị Black feminists ikike ịkwalite olu ha iji lekwasị anya na ndị ọzọ. Steele na-ekwu na oghere dijitalụ emeela "ihe ndị a na-ahụkarị" ebe ụmụ nwanyị ojii nwere ike ịbịakọta iji kwurịta ma kesaa ahụmịhe gbasara okwu gbasara ikpe ziri ezi agbụrụ na okike. Mgbalị dijitalụ a emetụtala òtù ndị dị ka #SayHerName. A na-eji mkpọsa mgbasa ozi mmekọrịta #SayHerName, nke a malitere site na African American Policy Forum eme ihe iji bulie akụkọ banyere ụmụ nwanyị ojii bụ ndị ndị ndị uwe ojii na-emegbu, ebe a na-elegharakarị akụkọ ha anya na mgbasa ozi.[34] Na mgbakwunye na mgbasa ozi mgbasa ozi, ụmụ nwanyị ojii dijitalụ aghọwokwa omume sara mbara nke akwụkwọ obodo na nchekwa nchekwa. Ndị ọkà mmụta ụmụ nwanyị Africa ekwusiwo ike etu teknụzụ dijitalụ nwere ike isi mee ka ụmụ nwanyị sonye na obodo ma chekwaa ncheta mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya.[35][36] N'ofe Ghana na ọnọdụ ndị ọzọ dị n'Afrịka, òtù ụmụ nwanyị etinyela akụkọ, akụkọ ihe mere eme, na mgbasa ozi dijitalụ n'ime mmemme ndị na-edekọ ahụmahụ nke enweghị nhata na ntachi obi.[37] Ọrụ ndị a na-ejikọta ọrụ nwoke na nwanyị na akụkọ ihe mere eme ọha na eze site n'ịgbanwe ihe ndekọ nke ndụ kwa ụbọchị n'ihe onwunwe maka agụmakwụkwọ na nkwado. [citation needed] N'ozuzu, mmepe ndị a na-egosi etu ụmụ nwanyị ojii dijitalụ si arụ ọrụ ọ bụghị naanị dị ka usoro ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị kamakwa dị ka ebe nchekwa dị ndụ nke ncheta na nlekọta, na-ejikọta òtù ụmụ nwanyị ụwa na nke Afrịka site na ọrụ dijitalụ na akụkọ ihe mere eme. N'ịdabere n'ụzọ ndị a na-ahụ maka ihe ncheta na ihe ncheta, ikpo okwu n'ịntanetị na-aga n'ihu na-eje ozi dị ka oghere dị ike maka ime ihe na ime obodo. Iji hashtags na ọdịnaya mgbasa ozi mmekọrịta na nyiwe dijitalụ emeela ka mmegharị ụmụ nwanyị ojii gbasaa ma mee ka ha nwekwuo ike. N'ihi ya, nyiwe ndị dị ka "Black Twitter" emepụtala oghere ọhụrụ maka agụmakwụkwọ na ime ihe ike na ahụmịhe ụmụ nwanyị ojii, na-akwalite mgbanwe usoro. 

Ụmụ nwanyị ojii na mgbasa ozi

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Digital age femism gụnyere iji Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, YouTube, Tumblr, na ụdị mgbasa ozi mmekọrịta ndị ọzọ iji kwurịta Ịha nhata nwoke na nwanyị na ikpe ziri ezi. Dị ka NOW Toronto si kwuo, ịntanetị mepụtara omenala "ịkpọ oku", nke enwere ike ịkpọ oku nwoke na nwanyị ma ọ bụ misogyny ma maa ya aka ozugbo n'ụzọ dị mfe.

Mgbasa ozi ọha na eze bụ ụgbọ ala maka ndị nwanyị ojii iji gosipụta ekele ma ọ bụ enweghị afọ ojuju ha na nnọchite anya ụmụ nwanyị ojii.[1] Dịka ọmụmaatụ, Lizzo na-eji mgbasa ozi ọha, ọkachasị Instagram, iji kwalite ụdị ahụ dị iche iche nke ụmụ nwanyị ojii. Ọ na-ekwukarị okwu megide ịkpa ókè agbụrụ na nkwụghachi azụ ọ na-enweta dị ka onye na-egwu egwu nwanyị ojii siri ike, gbakwunyere nha. O kwuru, sị: "M na-eme Black music, period ... M na-eme nke a maka nnukwu ụmụ nwanyị ojii nke ọdịnihu bụ ndị chọrọ ibi ndụ ha n'enweghị ikpe ma ọ bụ tinye n'ime igbe"[2].

Enweela oku maka "ikwado" omenala ndị ojii. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, foto foto Vogue Italia nke 2015 nke na-egosipụta ihe nlereanya Gigi Hadid nke yi uwe afro kpalitere azụ azụ na Twitter, Instagram na Facebook. Ụfọdụ ndị ọrụ ekwuola na ọ bụ nsogbu na ịkpa ókè agbụrụ maka onye na-abụghị onye ojii iyi uwe afro na tan adịgboroja iji nye ọdịdị Blackness mgbe magazin ejiji nwere ike were onye ojii were kama.[1]. Kearie Daniel dere na ndị ọcha na-eyi ụfọdụ edozi isi bụ isiokwu na-emetụ n'ahụ karịsịa na nwa nwanyị ojii n'ihi ụkpụrụ abụọ na mgbe ụmụ nwanyị ọcha na-eyi ntutu isi ojii, a na-ewere ha dị ka "trendy" ma ọ bụ "edgy", ebe a na-akpọ ụmụ nwanyị ojii "ghetto" na ọ bụghị ọkachamara.[2].

Ndị na-ahụ maka nwanyị ojii ekwupụtakwala mkpa ọ dị ịbawanye "nnochite anya" ụmụ nwanyị ojii na telivishọn na ihe nkiri. Dị ka ọmụmụ 2014 nke Mahadum Southern California si kwuo, n'ime ihe nkiri 100 kachasị elu nke afọ, "ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ ụzọ atọ n'ime ihe odide niile dị ọcha," ka NPR na-akọ, na nanị 17 n'ime ihe nkiri 100 ahụ gosipụtara ndị na-eme ihe nkiri ma ọ bụ ndị na-eme ihe nkiri na-abụghị ndị ọcha. Ọnụ ọgụgụ ahụ na-adaba mgbe ị na-ele naanị ụmụ nwanyị na-abụghị ndị ọcha, na-atụle naanị ihe dị ka otu ụzọ n'ụzọ atọ nke ọrụ ikwu okwu bụ maka ụmụ nwanyị, [1] dị ka otu nnyocha si kwuo.

Ịgbaghara Ụmụ nwanyị

Ụdị ọhụrụ nke nwa nwanyị ojii apụtala na mbipụta nke isiokwu bụ "Conjure Feminism: Toward a Genealogy" nke e bipụtara na mbipụta pụrụ iche na conjure feminism na Hypatia Journal na 2021. Echiche nwanyị na-agụnye ihe ọmụma ụmụ nwanyị ojii banyere ọnọdụ ime mmụọ Africa iji mee ka ndụ ha mara na US na ndị Africa n'ozuzu. Ndị ọkà mmụta nwanyị ojii bụ Kinitra Brooks, Kameelah Martin, na LaKisha Simmons kwadoro akụkọ Hypatia Journal's Women of Color ma dezie mbipụta pụrụ iche. Akwụkwọ ndị ọzọ na isiokwu nwanyị gụnyere Kameelah Martin's (2012) Conjuring Moments in African American books: Women, Spirit Work, and Other Other such Hoodoo na Envisioning Black Feminist Voodoo Aesthetics: Ime mmụọ Africa na American Cinema (2019); Onye na-agụ Lemonade (2019) nke Kinitra Brooks na Kameelah Martin deziri; na Patricia Coloma Peñate's The erotic dị ka ọmarịcha ezigbo paradigm: Hurston na Conjure Feminism (2023).

Ndụ Ndị Ojii Dị Mkpa

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Ọ bụ Opal Tometi, Alicia Garza, na Patrisse Kahn-Cullors guzobere òtù Black Lives Matter dị ka hashtag iji mee mkpọsa megide ịkpa ókè agbụrụ na obi ọjọọ ndị uwe ojii megide ndị Africa America na United States.[38] Omume ahụ nyere aka n'ime ka a maliteghachi ma nyochaa ọzọ òtù ụmụ nwanyị ojii.[39] Ọ bụ ezie na ọnwụ nke ndị ikom ojii keere òkè dị mkpa na Black Lives Matter movement, Rekia Boyd, Michelle Cusseaux, Tanisha Anderson, Shelly Frey, Yvette Smith, Eleanor Bumpurs, Sandra Bland, na ụmụ nwanyị ndị ọzọ ka ndị uwe ojii gburu ma ọ bụ wakpo ha.[40]

Ọ bụ ezie na a katọrọ Black Lives Matter maka ọdịda ya ikwusa obi ọjọọ ndị uwe ojii na-eme ụmụ nwanyị ojii, ndị nwanyị ojii nọ na otu ahụ alụ ọgụ iji kpochapụ mmegbu nke usoro na-emerụ ụmụ nwanyị ojii n'ụzọ na-enweghị isi.[1][2] Mgbalị ndị isi ojii na-agba na Black Lives Matter gụnyere ngagharị iwe megide ndị ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị dịka Bernie Sanders, Donald Trump, na Hillary Clinton, ma jiri hashtags dị ka #oscarssowhite na #sayhername na-agbagha agbụrụ na ikpe na-ezighị ezi nke nwoke na nwanyị.[3] Na mgbakwunye na ngagharị iwe ọdịnala, ndị na-ahụ maka nwanyị ojii ahazila ihe ọmụmụ obodo, akụrụngwa ahụike uche, na nkuzi nkuzi iji kwado maka mgbanwe ụlọ ọrụ. Ndị a bụ mbọ mgbasa ozi na-akwalite oghere nkwado ma na-enye ngwaọrụ iji gboo nsogbu ndị inyom ojii chere ihu.[4]

ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị nke ụmụ nwanyị ojii na oghere dị nchebe

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Enwere ike ịkọwa ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị ụmụ nwanyị ojii dị ka mmata na nghọta nke njirimara onwe onye na iji ma ahụmahụ onwe onye na nke akụkọ ihe mere eme nyere aka ịmepụta otu ndị nwere otu echiche na-achọ mgbanwe na usoro ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị nke ọha mmadụ.[1]. A pụkwara ịkọwa ya dị ka ịjụ usoro mmegbu nke na-emegbu otu ìgwè mmadụ, karịsịa n'ihe gbasara ikpe na-ezighị ezi nke ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị.

Odeakwụkwọ na-ahụ maka nwanyị ojii bụ Patricia Hill Collins kwenyere na ụmụ nwanyị ojii bụ "ndị ọzọ" n'ime ụlọ, ebe a na-ewere ụmụ nwanyị ojii dị iche na ndị a na-ewere dị ka ndị ọcha ma na-ekwu na ha na-achị ha.[1] Ha nwekwara nghọta dị iche iche banyere ahụhụ na mmegbu nke ụmụ nwanyị ojii.[1] N'ihi na ndị inyom na-acha ọcha na-ewepụ ụmụ nwanyị ojii n'okwu ha, ụmụ nwanyị ojii na-ahụkarị onwe ha na-egosipụta ahụmahụ nke ịkpa ókè na inye ikike ndị ojii na ọha mmadụ.[1] N'iburu ahụmahụ dị iche iche nke ụmụ nwanyị ojii, ọ dị mkpa ka Collins na-ekwu maka ma kọwapụta akụkọ onwe onye banyere mmegbu nke ụmụ nwanyị ojii.[1]

Ọchịchị njirimara na-emejuputa agbụrụ, klaasị, na okike dị ka ngalaba dị ka ụzọ isi wepụ ndị na-adịghị ewere akụkụ nke otu ndị na-achị achị.[1] Mmetụta ndị a nke agbụrụ, klaasị, na okike bụ ihe nwanyị Kimberlé Crenshaw kwenyere na ọ dị mkpa ka e jiri ya mee ihe, ọ bụghị dị ka ụzọ mmegbu, kama dị ka ụdị nke ike na ọdịmma onwe onye.[1] Ileghara ndịiche ndị a anya na-ebute nkewa n'etiti mmegharị mmekọrịta ọha na eze na mmegharị ndị ọzọ nke nwanyị, karịsịa n'ihe gbasara ime ihe ike megide ụmụ nwanyị ebe ụdị ime ihe ike jikọtara ya na ihe ndị dị ka agbụrụ na klaasị.[1].

Akụkụ ọzọ nke ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị njirimara bụ esemokwu dị n'etiti otu na oghere mgbaba maka ụmụ nwanyị ojii.[1] Na 1970s, ịrị elu nke ịgụ na mmuta n'etiti ụmụ nwanyị ojii kwalitere ide na agụmakwụkwọ ka ụzọ e si anụ olu ụmụ nwanyị.[1]. N'ihi ya, ụmụ nwanyị ojii na-achọ nkasi obi na ebe nchekwa nke nyere ha ohere ikwu okwu banyere mmegbu na ịkpa ókè, bụ nke na-akwalite ịdị n'otu na ụzọ ikpe ziri ezi.[1]

Dị ka ndị nwanyị ojii na-akwado maka mkpochapụ ịkpa ókè n'ebe ọrụ, ụmụ nwanyị ojii chere ihe ịma aka ọhụrụ ihu na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị njirimara ma chọọ ebe nchekwa ọhụrụ iji kwupụta nchegbu ha.[1] Nke a bụ nnukwu arụmụka, ebe ndị mmadụ na-ahụ otu ndị a nke ụmụ nwanyị ojii dị ka ndị pụrụ iche na ndị a na-ekewaghị ekewa.[1] Ndị nọ n'ọchịchị, karịsịa ndị na-etinye aka na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị, hụrụ ebe ndị a dị nchebe dị ka ihe iyi egwu n'ihi na ha nọ n'ihu ọha na ya mere ndị ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị dị elu na ndị dị ike na-apụghị iru.[1].

N'agbanyeghị ọganihu nke okwu ụmụ nwanyị na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị ojii, ụfọdụ ụmụ nwoke anabataghị ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị ojii.[1] Ụfọdụ ndị ode akwụkwọ ojii, dị ka Kwame Anthony Appiah, na-akwado echiche nke isi ojii ma jụ ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị dị ka ụzọ nwere ike isi nweta ikpe ziri ezi. Maka ya, ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị njirimara bụ ngwá ọrụ na-ewepụ omenala ojii na akụkọ ihe mere eme, dị ka hip hop na jazz, nke na-egbochi nghọta na ohere nke ndị ọzọ.[1] Agbanyeghị, onye edemede Jeffery A. Tucker kwenyere na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị njirimara na-eje ozi dị ka ntọala maka njirimara ojii nke a ga-emecha nweta ma ọ bụrụ na etinyere ya ma ghọta ya na ọha mmadụ.[1]

Nzukọ

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E hiwere National Black Feminist Organization na 1973, ma gbasaa n'ihe dị ka afọ 1977. [41] Nzukọ ụmụ nwanyị a lekwasịrị anya na njikọ nke ọtụtụ ajọ mbunobi ndị inyom Africa America na-eche ihu; na-ekwu na ebumnuche ha bụ ịkọwa ọdịdị onwe ha dị ka ụmụ nwanyị ojii ma ghara ịjụ ụmụ nwanyị ọcha. E nwere isi na obodo ukwu, nzukọ ahụ lụrụ ọgụ maka mmetụta ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị ma mee ka a mara banyere mmegbu a na-emeso obodo ha. N'afọ 1975, Barbara Smith, Beverly Smith, Cheryl L. Clarke, Akasha Gloria Hull, na ụmụ nwanyị ndị ọzọ na-eme ihe ike jikọtara ya na The Civil Rights Movement, Black nationalism, ma ọ bụ Black Panther Party guzobere, dị ka alaka nke National Black Feminist Organization, Combahee River Collective, otu ụmụ nwanyị na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị.

E hiwere National Black Feminist Organization na 1973, ma gbasaa n'ihe dị ka afọ 1977. [42] Nzukọ ụmụ nwanyị a lekwasịrị anya na njikọ nke ọtụtụ ajọ mbunobi ndị inyom Africa America na-eche ihu; na-ekwu na ebumnuche ha bụ ịkọwa ọdịdị onwe ha dị ka ụmụ nwanyị ojii ma ghara ịjụ ụmụ nwanyị ọcha. E nwere isi na obodo ukwu, nzukọ ahụ lụrụ ọgụ maka mmetụta ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị ma mee ka a mara banyere mmegbu a na-emeso obodo ha. N'afọ 1975, Barbara Smith, Beverly Smith, Cheryl L. Clarke, Akasha Gloria Hull, na ụmụ nwanyị ndị ọzọ na-eme ihe ike jikọtara ya na The Civil Rights Movement, Black nationalism, ma ọ bụ Black Panther Party guzobere, dị ka alaka nke National Black Feminist Organization, Combahee River Collective, otu ụmụ nwanyị na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị.

Ndị otu a nwere ọtụtụ ndị bụbu ndị otu ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị ndị ọzọ na-arụ ọrụ n'ime The Civil Rights Movement, Anti-War movement, Labor Movement, na ndị ọzọ. Demita Frazier, onye guzobere Combahee River Collective, na-ekwu na ụmụ nwanyị ndị a sitere na òtù ndị ọzọ hụrụ onwe ha "na-emegide enweghị nyocha ụmụ nwanyị ma n'ọtụtụ ọnọdụ a hapụrụ ha na-enwe mmetụta nkewa megide [onwe ha]. " Combahee Osimiri Collective kwuru na 1974 na nnwere onwe nke ụmụ nwanyị ojii na-eweta nnwere onwe maka ndị mmadụ niile, ebe ọ ga-achọ njedebe nke ịkpa ókè agbụrụ, ịkpa ókè nwoke na nwanyị, na mmegbu nke klas. [43] N'ime Black Feminisms: Combahee River Collective Statement nke 1977, ha kwuru banyere otú ọ dị, "...ihe siri ike ike ike ikewapụ agbụrụ site na mmegbu mmekọahụ n'ihi na na na ndụ anyị [ndị isi ojii'], ha bụ ndị a na-ahụkarị n'otu oge".[43] Combahee River Collective kwupụtara usoro mmegbu a na-ejikọta ọnụ nke dabeere na ịkpa ókè nwoke na nwanyị, heterosexism, ịkpa ókè agbụrụ, na ịkpa oke agbụrụ bụ n'ihi enweghị ikike mmadụ nke ụmụ nwanyị ojii nyere ma e jiri ya tụnyere ndị ọzọ, dị ka ụmụ nwanyị ọcha. Ụmụ nwanyị ọcha na-alụ ọgụ maka ụmụ nwanyị dị iche na ụmụ nwanyị ojii na-alụ maka ụmụ nwanyị ojii, ebe ụmụ nwanyị ọcha na'ihi naanị ha chọrọ ịnagide otu ụdị mmegbu [sexism] na ọtụtụ ụdị mmegbu, dị ka ụmụ nwanyị ojii. Ya mere, ndị inyom ojii nke Combahee River Collective bu n'uche maka mmegharị zuru oke karịa naanị ya n'ihi na, "Isi ihe isi ike n'ọrụ ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị anyị bụ na anyị anaghị anwa ịlụso mmegbu ọgụ n'otu ihu ma ọ bụ ọbụna abụọ, kama anyị na-agbalị ịlụso ọtụtụ mmegbu ọgụ. Anyị enweghị agbụrụ, mmekọahụ, ma ọ bụ ihe ùgwù nke ịdabere na ya, anyị enweghị ọbụna obere ohere ịnweta ihe onwunwe na ike nke otu n'ime ụdị ihe ùgwù ndị a nwere. "[2]

Dị ka otu nzukọ, a na-akpọ ha ndị na-akpata nsogbu, ọtụtụ ndị kwuru na onye ọcha na-akpọ ụmụ nwanyị asị, na ha enweghị uche nke ha, nakwa na ha na-agbaso nzọụkwụ nwanyị ọcha. N'ime afọ ndị 1970 niile, Combahee River Collective na-ezukọ kwa izu iji kwurịta okwu dị iche iche gbasara ndị inyom ojii. Ha mekwara ezumike n'ebe ugwu ọwụwa anyanwụ niile site na 1977 ruo 1979 iji nyere aka "ịmepụta ụmụ nwanyị ojii" ma mepụta "nkewa echiche site na ụmụ nwanyị ọcha".[44]

Dị ka otu nzukọ, ha hibere ebe nchekwa ụmụ nwanyị a na-etigbu na mpaghara wee soro ndị na-eme ihe ike n'ofe obodo ahụ, ndị inyom na ndị nwoke, na ndị mmekọ nwoke na nwoke na nwanyị nwere mmasị, na-arụ ọrụ dị ịrịba ama na ikike ọmụmụ.[1] Combahee River Collective kwụsịrị ọrụ ya na 1980 ma na-echeta ugbu a maka ịmepụta nkwupụta Combahee Lake Collective, akwụkwọ dị ịrịba ama na akụkọ ihe mere eme nke nwanyị ojii nke oge a na mmepe nke echiche nke njirimara. Nyere ihe ịga nke ọma nke Combahee River Collective n'ọgụ megide ịkpa ókè agbụrụ na Boston, nzukọ a ghọrọ "akara ngosi" maka mmegharị ụmụ nwanyị ojii n'ọdịnihu.[2].

National Welfare Rights Organization (NWRO)

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Ọtụtụ ụmụ nwanyị ojii lụrụ ọgụ maka ikike ha na ụlọ ọrụ ọha na eze na uru, ọtụtụ n'ime ha bụ ndị otu The National Welfare Rights Organization (NWRO). NWRO, nke e guzobere na 1966, bụ njikọ nke gụnyere ọtụtụ ụlọ ọrụ ọdịmma dị iche iche. Mgbe e kere ya, NWRO "na-anọchite anya nnukwu mgbalị mbụ iji wuo otu mba n'etiti ndị nne na-ahụ maka ọdịmma".[45]

  • National Association of Colored Women (NACW)
  • National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)

Akwụkwọ ndị isi ojii na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Michelle Cliff kwenyere na enwere ịga n'ihu "n'ọrụ edere nke ọtụtụ ụmụ nwanyị Africa America, ... ị nwere ike ịdọrọ ahịrị site na Akụkọ ohu nke Linda Brent ruo ndụ Elizabeth Keckley, gaa na Anya Ha Na-ele Chineke (nke Zora Neale Hurston) ruo na Coming of Age na Mississippi (nke Toni Morrison), gaa na ndị na-eri nnu (nke Toni Cade Bambara) iji too abụ maka nwanyị di ya nwụrụ (nke Paule Marshall)." Cliff kwetara na ụmụ nwanyị ndị a niile, site na-ekwu na ha, site na 'M na-arụ ọrụ megide akụkọ ha,

  • 1970, Black Woman's Manifesto, nke Third World Women's Alliance bipụtara, rụrụ ụka maka mmegbu pụrụ iche megide ụmụ nwanyị ojii. N'ịbụ nke Gayle Lynch, Eleanor Holmes Norton, Maxine Williams, Frances M. Beal, na Linda La Rue bịanyere aka na ya, nkwupụta ahụ, na-emegide ma ịkpa ókè agbụrụ na akụrụngwa, kwuru na "nwaanyị ojii ahụ na-achọ usoro ọhụrụ nke nkọwa ụmụ nwanyị na ịnakwere onwe ya nke nwa amaala, enyi, na onye nzuzo, ọ bụghị onye na-eme ihe ọjọọ matriarchal ma ọ bụ onye na-emepụta nwa ọhụrụ. Njikọ ọrụ ahụ na-akwado nkwenye nke nwoke na nwanyị, ọ bụ nwanyị, ọ bụla, ọ bụ onye Black B B B Bolded B B Bade ugbu a: On On On On, ọ bụ Black"[46][47]
  • 1979, Barbara Smith na Lorraine Betel dezigharịrị mbipụta Autumn 1979 nke Conditions. Ọnọdụ 5 bụ "nchịkọta mbụ e kesara n'ọtụtụ ebe nke ederede Black feminist na US"
  • 1992, ndị Black femists kwadoro "mzaghachi dị ịrịba ama nke mba" na Anita Hill-Clarence Thomas Senate Hearings na 1991, na-akpọ mgbalị ha African American Women in Defense of Ourselves.
  • 1994, Evelyn Hammonds: "Black (W) holes and The Geometry of Black Female Sexuality" Evelyn Hammonds malitere edemede ya site n'ịtụgharị uche, dị ka onye Black lesbian na onye edemede feminist, na "omume na-adịghị mma nke ọmụmụ ụmụ nwanyị na ụmụ nwoke" nke na-emepụta nsogbu dị ka ọnụnọ nke ndị edemede nke agba, isiokwu ndị e dere banyere mmekọahụ ụmụ nwanyị ojii nke na-enyocha agbụrụ na nnọchiteanya nke okike, na ngosipụta nke ahụmahụ nke ụmụ nwanyị ojii (Hammonds, 127). Hammonds na-akọwa etu Whiteness si kọwaa "ụdị, njirimara, na ọnọdụ isiokwu" nke ọmụmụ ụmụ nwanyị na nwoke ma dabere na ịnọgide na-enwe ma na-atụle ụkpụrụ nke ụmụ nwanyị ojii na ụmụ nwanyị ojii (Hammonds, 128).
  • 2000, Alice Walker: "N'ịchọ ogige nne anyị" Nkwupụta a nwere njikọ kpọmkwem na nchegbu Hammonds banyere ịhụ anya na ịnụ nke mmekọahụ Black queer, ebe ọ bụ na a na-ahụ mmekọahụ Black dị ka nke a na-adịghị ahụ anya ma ọ bụ na-adịghị ya, mgbe ahụ, ụmụ nwanyị Black na ndị edemede ga-eso dị ka ndị a na-apụghị ịhụ anya ugboro abụọ. Ọ bụ ezie na ndị edemede ndị ọzọ agbaghawo mmekọahụ ndị ọcha dị ka mmekọahụ iwu, Hammonds na-eme ka ntinye aka ya dị ka ịgafe ókè nke nkatọ a maara nke ọma. Iji mee ka ikike nke Whiteness n'ime echiche Queer mara ya aka n'ụzọ dị irè, Hammonds na-ebo ebubo na ndị na-akwado ụmụ nwanyị enweghị nnukwu ọrụ nke iweghachite mmekọahụ ka ụmụ nwanyị ojii na mmekọahụ ha wee debanye aha dị ka mmekọrịta dị ugbu a na ike n'etiti ụmụ nwanyị ọcha na ngosipụta nke okike na mmekọahụ nke ụmụ nwanyị ojii ghọrọ akụkụ nke echiche na-eme n'ime ọmụmụ Queer (Hammonds, 131).
  • 2000, na mmeghe ya na mbipụta 2000 nke 1983 Black feminist anthology Home Girls, onye na-akụzi ihe na onye edemede Barbara Smith kwuru echiche ya na "ruo taa ọtụtụ ụmụ nwanyị ojii achọghị itinye 'ịkwado agbụrụ' ha n'ihe ize ndụ (dị ka ndị ikom ojii si kọwaa) iji dozie eziokwu nke ịkpa ókè nwoke na nwanyị. " Smith kwukwara na "Ọbụna ole na ole dị njikere iwelite homophobia na heterosexism, nke nwere njikọ na mmegbu nwoke na nwanyị".[48]
  • 2011, Black Internationalist Feminism: Women Writers of the Black Left, 1945-1995 site na Cheryl Higashida na-ele ndị edemede nwanyị ojii na onyinye ha nyere na òtù ụmụ nwanyị.[49] Higashida "na-egosi etu akwụkwọ si bụrụ oghere dị mkpa maka ịmụ ụmụ nwanyị Black Internationalist n'ihi na ndị edemede a nọ n'ihu n'iweta echiche na nsogbu nke ụmụ nwanyị ojii iji mee ka ha ghara ịdị mma na ịgbachi nkịtị. " N'ọrụ ya gụnyere ndị edemede dịka Rosa Guy, Lorraine Hansberry, Audre Lorde, na Maya Angelou.
  • 2014, On Intersectionality nke Kimberlé Crenshaw. Nchịkọta nke edemede na isiokwu ndị na-agbasawanye na ịkọwa echiche nke intersectionality.[50]

Angela Davis, amụrụ na Jenụwarị 26, 1944, bụ onye a maara dị ka onye nkuzi, onye edemede, na onye ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị. [51] Site n'ihe odide ya, "Women, Race, & Class (1981)," ọ na-eweta echiche nke intersectionality, ọ bụ ezie na ọ bụghị nke e chepụtara n'oge ahụ, na mmetụta ya na ụmụ nwanyị ojii. Ndị nkatọ kwuru na ederede a enyeghị ozi zuru ezu banyere otu esi emeri ịkpa ókè agbụrụ na ịkpa ókè nwoke na nwanyị, na-akpata mmechuihu; Otú ọ dị, ọ ka na-agwa ndị na-agụ ya banyere nchụpụ nke ahụmịhe ndị isi ojii n'ime Women's Movement.[52] O dekwara, "Nnwere Onwe bụ Mgbalị Na-aga n'ihu," nke na-atụle mkpa mwepụ ụlọ mkpọrọ na-ejikọta na ụmụ nwanyị na ịkpa ókè agbụrụ. Davis na-akọwa mkpa ọ dị ịbụ onye na-arụsi ọrụ ike, onye na-eme ihe ike ruo ogologo oge.[53]

  • "The Transformation of Silence into Language and Action" (okwu) (1977).[54] Audre Lorde, onye ojii na-ede uri ụmụ nwanyị, chọpụtara na ọ na-arịa ọrịa kansa nke mere ka ọ tụgharịa uche na ịgbachi nkịtị ya, ịgbachi nkịtị nke mere ka o tụfuo onwe ya.[55] Site na uri ya, "The Transformation of Silence into Language and Action," ọ gbalịrị ịkụziri ụmụ nwanyị mkpa ọ dị ịnakwere njirimara gị, gụnyere mmekọahụ gị na mmegbu gị, site na olu.[56] Nke a na-ekweta isiokwu nke ime ihe n'onwe ya, dịka Lorde na-akwado na mgbe anyị na ìgwè ndị dị iche iche na-ekwurịta okwu, anyị na-alụ ọgụ megide mmegbu.
  • "Ojiji nke Erotic: The Erotic dị ka Ike" (1978). Lorde dere na ịnye ịhụnanya na ike n'ime onwe anyị dị mkpa ebe ọ bụ na nke a ga-eme ka ndị mmadụ nwee ike iso ndị ọzọ jikọọ. Mgbe ahụ, nke a ga-eme ka ndị mmadụ dịrị n'otu ma lụso mmegbu ọgụ, dị ka mmegbu ụmụ nwanyị ojii na-eche ihu.[57]

N'afọ 1972, "Welfare Is a Women's Issue" na Ms. Magazine. Johnnie Tillmon dere ahụmahụ ha dị ka nwanyị ojii na ọdịmma ma katọọ iwu ọdịmma na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị ọdịmma ugbu a n'oge ahụ, na-ekwu maka Ronald Reagan na Aid to Dependent Children Program (ADC). [58]

Ndị ọzọ na-akụzi ihe na ndị edemede nyere aka n'akwụkwọ nke Black femism gụnyere Moya Bailey na Trudy nke Gradient Lair, bụ ndị na-ede banyere mmegide Black na / ma ọ bụ ịkpa ókè agbụrụ megide ụmụ nwanyị Black, nke a makwaara dị ka misogynoir, okwu nke Bailey chepụtara na 2008. N'afọ 2018, ụmụ nwanyị abụọ a dere edemede akpọrọ "On Misogynoir: Citation, erasure and plagiarism", nke na-ekwu maka ọrụ nke ndị Black femists na-abụkarị ndị a na-ehichapụ ma ọ bụ na-ehicha n'ọtụtụ akwụkwọ edemede, na mgbe ụfọdụ na-ejikọta ya na mmegbu nwoke na nwanyị, ọkachasị maka ụmụ nwanyị na-acha ọbara ọbara.[59]

Misogynoir dabeere na ozizi nke intersectionality. Ndị Black na-eme ihe n'oge a, dị ka Feminista Jones, na-ekwu na "Misogynoir na-enye echiche agbụrụ nke na-enweghị isi na ụmụ nwanyị na-ejide" nakwa na "e nwere otu misogyny nke a na-elekwasị anya na ụmụ nwanyị ojii ma na-emebi ụmụ nwanyị ojii". [60]

Isiokwu ndị ọzọ na akwụkwọ Black Feminist:

  • 1989, Kimberlé Crenshaw, Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Anti-Sracist Politics. A na-ewere akwụkwọ nzukọ iwu a dị ka ebe Kimberlé Crenshaw bụ onye mbụ mepụtara okwu intersectionality.[61]
  • "Mow to Now: Black Feminism Resets the Chronology of the Founding of Modern Feminism" (2018) nke Carol Giardina na-enyocha ụmụ nwanyị ojii na itinye aka ha na nhazi nke March 1963 na Washington maka Ọrụ na Nnwere Onwe (MOW). A na-elekwasị anya n'otú nke a si bụrụ ihe dị mkpa na mgbanwe nke nhazi ụmụ nwanyị nke afọ 1960. A maara ọtụtụ ndị na-eme ngagharị iwe, gụnyere Dorothy Height, Pauli Murray, na Anna Arnold Hedgeman. N'ịbụ ndị na-eche ndị ikom dị ike ihu site na chọọchị ahụ, ha guzobere ụdị mkpesa ụmụ nwanyị nke ha mechara jiri mee ihe iji mee ka e guzobe National Organization for Women na 1966. [62]
  • Ntinye aka nke Pat Parker na Black feminist movement gosipụtara n'ihe odide ya dị ka onye na-ede uri. Ọrụ ya kpaliri ndị ọzọ Black feminist poet dịka Hattie Gossett.
  • The Encyclopedia of African-American Women Writers (2007) na Encyclopedia of Feminist Literature (2006) depụtara Black Feminist Literatura.

Ndị na-akatọ ụmụ nwanyị ojii na-ekwu na nkewa n'akụkụ agbụrụ ma ọ bụ okike na-eme ka ike nke ndị inyom na ndị na-emegide ịkpa ókè agbụrụ ghara ịdị ike.[63]

Hụkwa

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

 

  • Ịhụnanya ụmụ nwanyị
  • Òtù ụmụ nwanyị Africa na America na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị
  • Nwa agbọghọ ojii anwansi
  • Ọchịchị ndị isi ojii
  • Intersectionality
  • Misogyny na omenala hip hop
    • Site na Black Power ruo Hip Hop: Ịkpa ókè agbụrụ, Ịhụ mba n'anya, na Ịhụ ụmụ nwanyị n'anya
    • ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị mmekọahụ ndị isi ojii: ndị Africa America, Mmekọahụ, na Ịkpa ókè agbụrụ Ọhụrụ
  • PaVEM
  • Nkwado ụmụ nwanyị na-esote ọchịchị ndị eze
  • Purplewashing
  • Ụmụ nwanyị nkewa
  • Ụmụ nwanyị nke Ụwa nke Atọ
  • Mmegbu okpukpu atọ

Edensibia

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Ịgụ ihe ọzọ

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Akwụkwọ

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]
  • bell hooks, ọ bụghị m nwanyị? : Black Women and Feminism (1981)
  • Molara Ogundipe-Leslie, Re-Creating Ourselves: African Women & Critical Transformations (1994)
  • Muhs (2012). Presumed Incompetent: The Intersections of Race and Class for Women in Academia. Boulder, Colorado: University Press of Colorado. ISBN 978-0-87421-922-7. 
  • Patricia Hill Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness and the Politics of Empowerment E debere na March 11, 2021, na Wayback Machine (1990) na Black Sexual Politics: African Americans, Gender, and the New Racism (ebe a E debere ya na March 11, 2021 na Wayback machine) (Routledge, 2005)
  • Third World Women's Alliance. Manifesto nke ụmụ nwanyị ojii (1970)
  • Home Girls: A Black Feminist Anthology (ebe a E debere ya na Wayback Machine). Tebụl Kitchen: Women of Color Press, 1983; Reed. 2000
  • Àkwà mmiri a kpọrọ My Back: Ihe odide nke Radical Women of Color, (ebe a echekwara na Wayback Machine) nke Cherríe Moraga na Gloria E. Anzaldúa dezigharịrị (Persephone Press, 1981; 2nd edn 1984, Kitchen Table: Women of Color Press; sụgharịrị n'asụsụ Spanish Archived March 11, 2021, na wayback Machine na 2002 site na Cherríe Moraga, Ana Castillo, na Norma Alarcón)

Isiokwu

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]
  1. ↑ Collins (2022-03-17). Black Feminist Thought, 30th Anniversary Edition. New York: Routledge. DOI:10.4324/9781003245650. ISBN 978-1-003-24565-0. 
  2. ↑ Bartlett. "Sojourner truth: Part two: The speech and the sojourner truth legacy plaza by beth bartlett". Claremont. Templeeti:ProQuest. 
  3. ↑ James [2000] (2003). "Black feminism(s)", in Code: Encyclopedia of feminist theories. Abingdon and New York: Routledge, 54–56. ISBN 978-0-415-13274-9. OCLC 43060471. 
  4. ↑ Hewitt (2010). No Permanent Waves: Recasting Histories of U.S. Feminism. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0813547251. 
  5. ↑ Ida B. Wells-Barnett (en). National Women's History Museum. Retrieved on 2019-04-15.
  6. 1 2 Patricia (2009). Black feminist thought : knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment, [2nd ed.], New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415964722. OCLC 245597448. 
  7. ↑ Shaw (January 1941). "Mary Church Terrell and H. G. Wells, A Colored Woman in a White World". The Journal of Negro History 26 (1): 108–110. DOI:10.2307/2715052. ISSN 0022-2992. 
  8. ↑ Zora Neale Hurston (en). National Women's History Museum. Retrieved on 2019-04-15.
  9. ↑ McGuire (2010). At the Dark End of the Street: Black Women, Rape, and Resistance—A New History of the Civil Rights Movement. New York City: Random House, 3–48. ISBN 978-0307389244. 
  10. ↑ Biondi (2006). To Stand and Fight: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Postwar New York City. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 198–199. ISBN 9780674019829. 
  11. 1 2 Tomlinson. ""And I want you to walk down freedom's road": Rethinking resistance in the music of nina simone, 1958-1963". Masters Abstracts International. Templeeti:ProQuest. 
  12. ↑ Skaller. "The protest music of nina simone and buffy sainte- marie: Trauma, gender-based violence, and minority feminisms". Masters Abstracts International. Templeeti:ProQuest. 
  13. ↑ Delaney (May 12, 2010). Dorothy Height and the Sexism of the Civil Rights Movement (en-US). The Root. Retrieved on 2019-04-30.
  14. ↑ The Object of History | Behind the Scenes with the Curators of the National Museum of American History.
  15. ↑ Urban (2002). "The Women of SNCC: Struggle, Sexism, and the Emergence of Feminist Consciousness, 1960–66". The International Social Science Review. 
  16. ↑ Carmichael, Stokely (en). The Martin Luther King, Jr., Research and Education Institute (2017-04-25). Retrieved on 2019-04-30.
  17. ↑ Fairclough (2002). Better Day Coming: Blacks and Equality, 1890–2000. Penguin. 
  18. ↑ Black Power and the Gendered Imaginary – AAIHS (en-US) (April 26, 2018). Retrieved on 2019-04-30.
  19. ↑ Weibaum. "Gendering the General Strike: W.E.B. Du Bois's Black Reconstruction and Black Feminism's "Propaganda of History"". South Atlantic Quarterly. 
  20. ↑ Brenner (2006). Women and Class: What Has Happened in Forty Years?. Monthly Review. Retrieved on August 13, 2015.
  21. ↑ (2024-08-23) in Fraser: Shirley Chisholm in Her Own Words. University of California Press. DOI:10.1525/9780520387003. ISBN 978-0-520-38700-3. 
  22. ↑ (2023-06-30) "Killing the Black Body: Race, Reproduction, and the Meaning of Liberty". Science 380 (6652): 1329. DOI:10.1126/science.adj1265. ISSN 0036-8075. 
  23. 1 2 Lesbian Feminism – Dictionary definition of Lesbian Feminism | Encyclopedia.com: FREE online dictionary (en). www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved on 2018-04-19.
  24. ↑ Moraga, Cherríe (2015). This bridge called my back : writings by radical women of color, Fourth, Albany, NY: State University of New York (SUNY) Press. ISBN 9781438454399. OCLC 894128432. 
  25. ↑ Allan (1995). "Review of Re-Creating Ourselves: African Women and Critical Transformations". Research in African Literatures 26 (2): 197–199. ISSN 0034-5210. 
  26. ↑ Mama (Sep 2011). "What Does it Mean to Do Feminist Research in African Contexts?" (in en). Feminist Review 98 (1_suppl): e4–e20. DOI:10.1057/fr.2011.22. ISSN 0141-7789. 
  27. ↑ Allan (1995). "Review of Re-Creating Ourselves: African Women and Critical Transformations". Research in African Literatures 26 (2): 197–199. ISSN 0034-5210. 
  28. ↑ Trouillot (2015). Silencing the past: power and the production of history. Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0-8070-8053-5. 
  29. ↑ Awumbila (2006). "Gender equality and poverty in Ghana: implications for poverty reduction strategies". GeoJournal 67 (2): 149–161. DOI:10.1007/s10708-007-9042-7. ISSN 0343-2521. 
  30. ↑ (2013-12-29) in Manuh: Africa in Contemporary Perspective: A Textbook for Undergraduate Students. Sub-Saharan Publishers. DOI:10.2307/jj.8085387.13. ISBN 978-9988-647-49-0. 
  31. ↑ Prah (1996). "Women's Studies in Ghana". Women's Studies Quarterly 24 (1/2): 412–422. ISSN 0732-1562. 
  32. ↑ Pough (2007). "What It Do, Shorty?: Women, Hip-Hop, and a Feminist Agenda". Black Women, Gender + Families 1 (2): 78–99. ISSN 1935-2743. 
  33. ↑ Durham (March 2013). "The Stage Hip-Hop Feminism Built: A New Directions Essay". Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 38 (3): 721–737. DOI:10.1086/668843. ISSN 0097-9740. 
  34. ↑ SAY HER NAME (en). AAPF. Retrieved on 2024-11-01.
  35. ↑ (2013-12-29) in Manuh: Africa in Contemporary Perspective: A Textbook for Undergraduate Students. Sub-Saharan Publishers. DOI:10.2307/jj.8085387.13. ISBN 978-9988-647-49-0. 
  36. ↑ Awumbila (2006). "Gender equality and poverty in Ghana: implications for poverty reduction strategies". GeoJournal 67 (2): 149–161. DOI:10.1007/s10708-007-9042-7. ISSN 0343-2521. 
  37. ↑ Ofei-Aboagye (2004). "Promoting Gender Sensitivity in Local Governance in Ghana". Development in Practice 14 (6): 753–760. DOI:10.1080/0961452042000283987. ISSN 0961-4524. 
  38. ↑ Black Lives Matter: Our Co-Founders. Black Lives Matter (7 July 2017). Retrieved on October 8, 2018.
  39. ↑ Jackson (2016-10-01). "(Re)Imagining Intersectional Democracy from Black Feminism to Hashtag Activism". Women's Studies in Communication 39 (4): 375–379. DOI:10.1080/07491409.2016.1226654. ISSN 0749-1409. 
  40. ↑ Lindsey (2015). "A Love Letter to Black Feminism". The Black Scholar 45 (4): 1–6. DOI:10.1080/00064246.2015.1080911. 
  41. ↑ National Black Feminist Organization collection. bmrc.lib.uchicago.edu. Retrieved on 2024-03-09.
  42. ↑ National Black Feminist Organization collection. bmrc.lib.uchicago.edu. Retrieved on 2024-03-09.
  43. 1 2 Combahee River Collective: A Black Feminist Statement – 1974. Archived from the original on March 26, 2016. Retrieved on May 31, 2007.
  44. ↑ Breines, Wini. 2002. "What's Love got to do with it? White Women, Black Women, and Feminism in the Movement Years". Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 27: 1095–1133.
  45. ↑ Reese (2005). Backlash against Welfare Mothers: Past and Present, 1, University of California Press. DOI:10.1525/j.ctt1pnkrz. ISBN 978-0-520-24461-0. 
  46. ↑ "Black Woman's Manifesto". Duke Digital Collections. 
  47. ↑ Toni Cade Bambara (2010). The Black Woman An Anthology.. Washington Square Press. ISBN 9781451604498. OCLC 1085178505. 
  48. ↑ Smith, Barbara. Home Girls: A Black Feminist Anthology, Rutgers University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-8135-2753-8, p. xiv.
  49. ↑ Higashida (14 Dec 2011). "Women Writers of the Black Left, 1945-1995", Black Internationalist Feminism Women Writers of the Black Left. University of Illinois Press, 264. ISBN 9780252036507. 
  50. ↑ Crenshaw (2017). On Intersectionality. The New Press. ISBN 9781620972700. 
  51. ↑ Achelpohl. "Black Feminist Resistance and the Authorial Power of the Presidents". Dissertation Abstracts International. Templeeti:ProQuest. 
  52. ↑ Laurent. "Race Against History: WOMEN, RACE & CLASS. By Angela Y. Davis. Random House. 271 pp. $13.50", The Washington Post. Templeeti:ProQuest.
  53. ↑ Davis (2016). Freedom Is A Constant Struggle, 4th, Haymarket Books. ISBN 978-1608465644. 
  54. ↑ Lorde (1977). The Transformation of Silence into Language and Action.
  55. ↑ Legros-Hoffner (2025-09-18). "The Rebellion Against Suffering Women's Silence: The Transformation of Despair into Language for a Pastorally Helpful Eschatology" (in en). Religions 16 (9): 1195. DOI:10.3390/rel16091195. ISSN 2077-1444. 
  56. ↑ Warner. "The rhetoric of silence as a tool of empowerment in the life and works of audre lorde". Masters Abstracts International. Templeeti:ProQuest. 
  57. ↑ Lorde (1978). Uses of the Erotic: The Erotic as Power.
  58. ↑ Tillmon (2021-03-25). Welfare Is a Women's Issue (Spring 1972) (en-US). Ms. Magazine. Retrieved on 2024-03-15.
  59. ↑ Bailey (2018). "On misogynoir: citation, erasure, and plagiarism". Feminist Media Studies 18 (4): 762–768. DOI:10.1080/14680777.2018.1447395. 
  60. ↑ Anyangwe. "Misogynoir: where racism and sexism meet", The Guardian, 2015-10-05. Retrieved on 2020-01-03. (in en-GB)
  61. ↑ Crenshaw (1989). "Demarginalizing The Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics.". University of Chicago Legal Forum. 
  62. ↑ Giardina (2018). "MOW to NOW: Black Feminism Resets the Chronology of the Founding of Modern Feminism". Feminist Studies 44 (3): 736–765. DOI:10.15767/feministstudies.44.3.0736. 
  63. ↑ Epstein (May 2001). What Happened to the Women's Movement?. Monthly Review. Retrieved on August 12, 2015.
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