Gaa na ọdịnaya

Feminism in the United States

Shí Wikipedia, njikotá édémédé nke onyobulạ

Ọganihu na-eto eto nke ịtụgharị na ibipụta ihe n’Ịntanet pụtara na e-zines (magazin eletrọnik) na blọgụ ghọrọ ihe a na-ahụkarị n’ebe niile. Ọtụtụ ndị ode akwụkwọ onwe ha siri ike, tinyere òtù dị iche iche, chọpụtara na Ịntanet nyere ohere maka ịkekọrịta ozi na ibipụta edemede na vidio ndị na-egosi echiche ha n’ihu ọtụtụ mmadụ nwere ike ịgụ ma ọ bụ hụ.

Ịntanet gbanwere nke ukwuu ọdịnaya nke mmegharị ụmụ nwanyị (feminist movement) n’ụzọ na-eme ka ọ dị mfe isonye, gbanwee ụdị ngosi ya, na gbasaa ụdị okwu na nsogbu e na-elebara anya.

 Ọganihu na-eto eto nke ịtụgharị na ibipụta ihe n’Ịntanet pụtara na e-zines (magazin eletrọnik) na blọgụ ghọrọ ihe a na-ahụkarị n’ebe niile. Ọtụtụ ndị ode akwụkwọ onwe ha siri ike, tinyere òtù dị iche iche, chọpụtara na Ịntanet nyere ohere maka ịkekọrịta ozi na ibipụta edemede na vidio ndị na-egosi echiche ha n’ihu ọtụtụ mmadụ nwere ike ịgụ ma ọ bụ hụ.

Ịntanet gbanwere nke ukwuu ọdịnaya nke mmegharị ụmụ nwanyị (feminist movement) n’ụzọ na-eme ka ọ dị mfe isonye, gbanwee ụdị ngosi ya, na gbasaa ụdị okwu na nsogbu e na-elebara anya.

Ebumnuche nke ụmụ nwanyị bụ ịkọwa, guzobe, na ịgbachitere ọnọdụ nke ikike ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị, akụ na ụba, ọdịbendị, na mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya maka ụmụ nwanyị. O nweela mmetụta dị ukwuu na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị America.[1][2] A na-ekewa ụmụ nwanyị na United States n'usoro oge n'ime ụmụ nwanyị nke mbụ, nke abụọ, nke atọ, na nke anọ.[3][4]

Usoro iheomume

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Ugboro mbụ nke ụmụ nwanyị

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Ugboro mbụ nke ụmụ nwanyị na United States malitere na Seneca Falls Convention, mgbakọ mbụ nke ikike ụmụ nwanyị, nke emere na Wesleyan Chapel na Seneva Falls, New York, na July 19 na 20, 1848. [5]

Nzukọ Seneca Falls sitere n'ike mmụọ nsọ nke ahụmahụ Elizabeth Cady Stanton na Lucretia Mott na World Anti-Slavery Convention na London na 1840. Nzukọ ahụ jụrụ ịnọdụ Mott na ndị nnọchi anya ụmụ nwanyị ndị ọzọ si America n'ihi okike ha.[6] "Stanton, nwunye ọhụrụ nke otu onye nnọchi anya na-alụso ịgba ohu ọgụ, na Mott, onye nkwusa Quaker na onye nwere ogologo ahụmahụ n’ọrụ mgbanwe ọha mmadụ, kparịtara maka ịkpọkọta ọgbakọ ga-atụle ọnọdụ na otu e si emeso ụmụ nwanyị."[6]

A na-eme atụmatụ na narị mmadụ atọ gara mgbakọ ahụ, gụnyere ndị ama ama Lucretia Mott na Frederick Douglass. [6] Na ngwụcha, ụmụ nwanyị 68 na ụmụ nwoke 32 bịanyere aka na Declaration of Sentiments, nke Elizabeth Cady Stanton na Ezinụlọ M'Clintock dere.[6]

E dere nkwupụta nke mmetụta n'ụdị na usoro nke Nkwupụta nke Nnwere Onwe. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, Declaration of Sentiments kwuru, sị: “Anyị na-ewere eziokwu ndị a dị ka nke na-apụta ìhè onwe ya, na a mụrụ mmadụ niile—ụmụ nwoke na ụmụ nwanyị—ha nhata, ma Onye Okike ha nyere ha ụfọdụ ikike a na-apụghị iwepụ.”7 [7] Nkwupụta ahụ gara n'ihu kwuo, "Akụkọ ihe mere eme nke ihe a kpọrọ mmadụ bụ akụkọ ihe mere eme banyere mmerụ ahụ ugboro ugboro na nnupụisi site n'aka nwoke n'ebe nwanyị nọ. "[7]

Nkwupụta ahụ gara n’ihu kọwaa mkpesa ụmụ nwanyị banyere iwu ndị na-agọnahụ ụmụ nwanyị lụrụ di ikike inwe ma ọ bụ ijide ụgwọ ọrụ ha nwetara, ego ha, na akụnụba ha. A na-achọ ka ụmụ nwanyị nyefee ihe ndị a niile n’aka di ha; iwu ndị a nke na-arụ ọrụ n’ofe America n’oge ahụ ka a na-akpọ iwu coverture.

A tụlekwa nsogbu nke enweghị ohere ụmụ nwanyị nwere nweta agụmakwụkwọ na ọrụ ọkachamara, nakwa ọnọdụ dị ala e nyere ụmụ nwanyị n’ọtụtụ ụka..[7] Ọzọkwa, nkwupụta ahụ kwupụtara na ụmụ nwanyị kwesịrị inwe ikike ịtụ vootu.[7]

Ụfọdụ n'ime ndị sonyere na Seneca Falls Convention haziri Rochester Women's Rights Convention izu abụọ ka e mesịrị na August 2 na Rochester, New York.[8] Nzukọ ndị ọzọ nke steeti na mpaghara sochiri ya na Ohio, Pennsylvania, na New York.[8] E mere National Woman's Rights Convention nke mbụ na Worcester, Massachusetts na 1850. [8] A na-eme mgbakọ ikike ụmụ nwanyị mgbe niile site na 1850 ruo mgbe Agha Obodo malitere. [9]

Nzukọ ụmụ nwanyị America malitere na 1848 Seneca Falls Convention; ọtụtụ n'ime ndị na-eme ngagharị iwe ghọrọ ndị maara ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị n'oge mmegide abolitionist. A haziri òtù ahụ mgbe Agha Obodo gasịrị, na-enweta ndị na-eme mkpọsa nwere ahụmịhe, ọtụtụ n'ime ha rụrụ ọrụ maka mmachibido iwu na Women's Christian Temperance Union. Ka ọ na-erule ngwụcha narị afọ nke iri na itoolu, ọ bụ naanị steeti ole na ole dị n'ebe ọdịda anyanwụ nyere ụmụ nwanyị ikike ịtụ vootu zuru oke, ọ bụ ezie na ụmụ nwanyị enweela mmeri ndị ọzọ dị mkpa n'iwu, na-enweta ikike n'ebe ndị dị ka ihe onwunwe na nlekọta ụmụaka.

N'afọ 1866, Elizabeth Cady Stanton na Susan B. Anthony guzobere American Equal Rights Association, otu maka ụmụ nwanyị na ndị ikom ọcha na ndị isi ojii raara onwe ha nye ebumnuche nke ikike nhọpụta maka mmadụ niile.[10] N'afọ 1868, e mere Ndezigharị nke Iri na Anọ, nke a bụ Ndezigharị mbụ iji kọwaa ndị na-eme ntụli aka dị ka "nwoke".[10] N'afọ 1869, òtù na-ahụ maka ihe ndị ruuru ụmụ nwanyị kewara n'ime òtù abụọ n'ihi enweghị nkwekọrịta banyere Ndezigharị nke Iri na Anọ na nke a ga-eme n'oge na-adịghị anya, ebe akụkụ abụọ ahụ na-agbakọtaghị ruo n'afọ 1890.[10] Elizabeth Cady Stanton na Susan B. Anthony guzobere otu National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) nke dị na New York. [10] Lucy Stone, Henry Blackwell, na Julia Ward Howe haziri American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA), nke dị na Boston.[10] N'afọ 1870, Ndezigharị nke Iri na Ise nyere ndị isi ojii ikike.[10] NWSA jụrụ ịrụ ọrụ maka nkwado ya, na-arụ ụka, kama nke ahụ, na a ga-ewepụ ya maka Ndezigharị nke Iri na Isii na-enye ikike ntụli aka zuru ụwa ọnụ.[10] Frederick Douglass kewapụrụ Stanton na Anthony n'ihi ọnọdụ NWSA.[10]

N'afọ 1869, Wyoming ghọrọ mpaghara ma ọ bụ steeti mbụ na America nyere ụmụ nwanyị ikike ntuli aka (suffrage).. [11] N'afọ 1870, Louisa Ann Swain ghọrọ nwanyị mbụ na United States na-atụ vootu na ntuli aka. Ọ tụbara vootu ya na Septemba 6, 1870, na Laramie, Wyoming.[12][13]

Site na 1870 ruo 1875 ọtụtụ ụmụ nwanyị, gụnyere Virginia Louisa Minor, Victoria Woodhull, na Myra Bradwell, Ha gbalịrị iji Ndezigharị Iwu nke Iri na Anọ (Fourteenth Amendment) n’ụlọikpe nweta ikike ntuli aka (dịka Minor na Woodhull) ma ọ bụ ikike ịrụ ọrụ iwu dịka ọka iwu (dịka Bradwell), ma mbọ ha niile dara n’ala ma ọ gaghị nke ọma.[10] N'afọ 1872, e jidere Susan B. Anthony ma kpụpụ ya n'ụlọ ikpe na Rochester, New York, maka ịnwa ịtụ vootu maka Ulysses S. Grant na ntuli aka onye isi ala; a mara ya ikpe ma kwụọ ya $ 100 na ụgwọ ikpe ya mana ọ jụrụ ịkwụ ụgwọ.[10][14] N'otu oge ahụ, Sojourner Truth pụtara n'ụlọ ntuli aka na Battle Creek, Michigan, na-achọ ka a tie vootu; a jụrụ ya.[10] Ọzọkwa na 1872, Victoria Woodhull ghọrọ nwanyị mbụ gbara ọsọ maka onye isi ala, ọ bụ ezie na ọ pụghị ịtụ vootu ma nweta naanị vootu ole na ole, Ulysses S. Grant meriri ya.[15] Ọ bụ ndị Equal Rights Party họpụtara ya ka ọ na-agba ọsọ, ma na-akwado Ụbọchị ọrụ awa asatọ, ụtụ isi ego gụsịrị akwụkwọ, mmemme ọdịmma ọha na eze, na ịkekọrịta uru, n'etiti ọkwa ndị ọzọ.[16] N'afọ 1874, Annie Wittenmyer guzobere Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) iji rụọ ọrụ maka mmachibido iwu nke mmanya; na Frances Willard n'isi ya (malite na 1876), WCTU ghọkwara ikike dị mkpa n'ọgụ maka ụmụ nwanyị.[10] N'afọ 1878, e bu ụzọ webata mgbanwe nke ụmụ nwanyị na United States Congress, mana ọ gafere. [10] [17] N'afọ 1920, a kwadoro Ndezigharị nke Iri na itoolu, na-enye ụmụ nwanyị ikike ịtụ vootu; a na-ewere na mmeri ahụ kwụsịrị usoro mbụ nke ụmụ nwanyị.[3]

Margaret Higgins Sanger, Ọ bụ otu n’ime ndị mbụ n’America kwadoro ma kwalite iji usoro mgbochi ime (birth control). Ọ bụkwa onye nkuzi gbasara mmekọahụ, onye odee, na nọọsụ. Ọ mere ka okwu “birth control” (mgbochi ime) bụrụ nke a ma ama, mepee ụlọ ọgwụ mbụ maka mgbochi ime na United States n’afọ 1916, ma guzobe òtù dị iche iche nke mechara bụrụ ihe ndabere nke ha. Planned Parenthood Federation of America.

Na 4 June 1919, United States Congress weputara Ndezigharị nke iri na itoolu na iwu US, na-enye ụmụ nwanyị ikike ịtụ vootu. A kwadoro ya na 18 Ọgọst 1920, na-egosi ihe dị ịrịba ama na nnọchite anya nhata maka ụmụ nwanyị na gọọmentị. [18]

Nkwado ụmụ nwanyị mgbe Agha Ụwa nke Abụọ gasịrị

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Agha Ụwa nke Abụọ dugara na mmụba nke ụmụ nwanyị n'ime ndị ọrụ ma mee ka ụmụ nwanyị rụọ ọrụ na-enweta ego n'ebe ụmụ nwoke na-arụkarị.[19] Site na 1940 ruo 1945, ọnụ ọgụgụ ụmụ nwanyị nọ n'ọrụ si na 28% ruo 37%.[19] Enweghị ụmụ nwoke n'ụlọ mere ka ọtụtụ ụmụ nwanyị na-arụ ọrụ n'ụlọ ọrụ: ka ọ na-erule 1943, otu ụzọ n'ụzọ atọ nke ndị ọrụ na ụlọ ọrụ Boeing na Seattle bụ ụmụ nwanyị.[20] Dị ka ọkọ akụkọ ihe mere eme Jane Marcellus si kwuo, ụmụ nwanyị nwere mgbanwe a na-ahụtụbeghị mbụ na otuto ọha na eze, ebe a na-aja ha mma dị ka ndị nwere ikike na ọgụgụ isi.[21] A na-egosipụta nke a na mgbasa ozi dịka Rosie the Riveter's 'We Can Do It!' Slogan na 1941 okike nke Wonder Woman.[22] Mbata ọnụ ọgụgụ buru ibu nke ụmụ nwanyị n’ọrụ na otu ụlọ mgbasa ozi si gosipụta ha n’ụzọ ọma mere ka ọtụtụ ụmụ nwanyị hụ na e nwere ọtụtụ ụzọ ndụ na ọrụ ha nwere ike ịhọrọ karịa ịbụ naanị nwunye na-elekọta ụlọ.

Otú ọ dị, nkọwa a dị mkpirikpi nke ike ụmụ nwanyị bụ naanị ya ma ọ bụghị na ebumnuche ya ka ọ bụrụ nke na-adịte aka. Ụmụ nwanyị na-acha ọbara ọbara bụ ndị ikpeazụ a ga-atụle maka ọrụ mmepụta ihe na-akwụ ụgwọ dị elu. Ụmụ nwanyị Africa America nọgidere na-arụ ọrụ ụlọ maka $ 3- $ 7 kwa izu ma e jiri ya tụnyere ụmụ nwanyị ọcha na-enweta ihe ruru $ 40 kwa izu na ụlọ ọrụ mmepụta ihe.[23] Ọzọkwa, mgbasa ozi dị ka Rosie the Riveter gosipụtara echiche dị mkpirikpi banyere ụmụ nwanyị na-arụ ọrụ: ndị ọcha, ndị mara mma, na ndị na-akpali ịhụ mba n'anya karịa mkpa akụ na ụba.[22] Maka ụmụ nwanyị na-acha ọbara ọbara na ụmụ nwanyị na'ọrụ, Agha Ụwa nke Abụọ agbanweghị ọnọdụ akụ na ụba ma ọ bụ nke ọha mmadụ.[22] Ọtụtụ n’ime ụmụ nwanyị sonyeere n’ọrụ laghachiri n’ọrụ ụlọ na ndụ ezinụlọ mgbe agha ahụ gasịrị. Akwụkwọ akụkọ na akwụkwọ mgbasa ozi ebe ọrụ, dịka Bo'sn's Whistle, na-akọwakarị ụmụ nwanyị n’asụsụ metụtara mmekọahụ ma na-egosi ha dị ka ndị na-adịghị ahụkebe n’ebe ọrụ ụlọ ọrụ mmepụta ihe nke ụmụ nwoke na-achị.[21]

N'agbanyeghị nke ahụ, mgbe World War II kwụsịrị, Nzukọ Ndị Nwanyị America (Congress of American Women) nke afọ 1946, n'akwụkwọ ha kpọrọ “Position of the American Woman Today”, kwadoro ikike ụmụ nwanyị ojii na ụmụ nwanyị sitere n’otu agbụrụ nta ndị ọzọ.

Mgbe ụmụ nwanyị ọcha na ụmụ nwanyị ojii rụkọrọ ọrụ ọnụ n’ụlọ ọrụ mmepụta ihe n’oge agha ahụ, ụfọdụ akụkụ nke mmegharị feminism nke ụmụ nwanyị ọcha malitere ịnakwere echiche nke ịtụle otu agbụrụ, okike, na ụdị nrụgide ndị ọzọ si emetụta ndụ mmadụ (intersectionality) n’oge sochirinụ mgbe Agha Ụwa nke Abụọ gasịrị..[24] Akwụkwọ na-arịwanye elu na-egosi na ọ nweghị ụgwọ ọnwa ogologo oge maka ụmụ nwanyị n'oge a. Otú ọ dị, mmụba na-arịwanye elu na ego na ọnọdụ ọha na eze nke ụmụ nwanyị na-acha ọbara ọbara mere n'oge 1940 nwere mmetụta ogologo oge na echiche ụmụ nwanyị. Ka ọ na-erule n'afọ 1950, ọdịiche dị n'etiti ndị ọcha na ndị inyom Africa America ji pasent 15 belata.[25]

Mmegide megide ọrụ ụlọ malitere ịpụta na ngwụcha afọ 1940 ka a na-agba ụmụ nwanyị ume ịghọ ndị inyom na-elekọta ụlọ. Edemede Edith Stern nke afọ 1949, "Ndị inyom bụ ndị ohu ezinụlọ", pụtara dị ka mmalite mmalite nke echiche ụmụ nwanyị nke abụọ. Stern kwuru na "ọ bụrụhaala na usoro nke nne ụlọ n'ụdị ya dị ugbu a na-aga n'ihu, ma n'echiche ma n'ụzọ ọ bụla ọ na-egbochi ezigbo nnwere onwe ụmụ nwanyị".[26] O jiri ọnọdụ ụmụ nwanyị tụnyere nke ndị na-ekere òkè ma kwuo okwu megide enweghị afọ ojuju mmetụta uche na ọgụgụ isi nke ụmụ nwanyị America.[26] Edemede Stern bụ otu n'ime arụmụka mbụ nke kwuru maka nnwere onwe ụmụ nwanyị n'ihe gbasara ụlọ.

Otú ọ dị, afọ 1950 hụrụ nloghachi na ọrụ nwoke na nwanyị ọdịnala na ụkpụrụ. Ọnụ ọgụgụ ụmụ nwanyị na-arụ ọrụ belatara site na 37% ruo 32% site na 1950 n'ihi na ụmụ nwanyị na - ahapụ ọrụ ha maka ụmụ nwoke na-alọta site na agha. Mgbasa ozi mekwara ka ọrụ ụmụ nwanyị na-arụ n'ụlọ ike karịa ịgba ụmụ nwanyị ume ịrụ ọrụ dịka ọ dị naanị afọ iri gara aga. Ka ọ na-erule 1956, 67% nke ezinụlọ ndị America nwere telivishọn ma e jiri ya tụnyere naanị 6% na 1949.[27] Ihe odide ndị dị ka June Cleaver na "Leave it to Beaver" toro ihe odide ụmụ nwanyị dị ka ndị na-elekọta ụlọ n'okpuru nnukwu ndị na-ege ntị nke ụmụ nwanyị America.

Otú ọ dị, dị ka Anna Lebovic si kwuo, magazin ụmụ nwanyị dị ka Vogue na 1950s guzobere ntọala maka ụmụ nwanyị nke abụọ site n'ịkwado mmelite onwe onye na ọdịdị nke ụmụ nwanyị.[27] N'otu aka ahụ, nnyocha e mere n'afọ 1951 banyere ụmụ nwanyị ndị rụburu ọrụ ma ọ bụ ka na-arụ ọrụ n'ụlọ ọrụ mmepụta ihe (factory) gosiri na ụmụ nwanyị na-egosipụta iwe na enweghị afọ ojuju banyere ịkpa ókè n'ebe ọrụ. Karịsịa, pasent 75 kwuru na ha chọrọ ịnọgide na-arụ ọrụ n'ọrụ ụlọ ọrụ ha ma gosipụta enweghị afọ ojuju na ọ na-esiri ha ike ịchụso ọrụ dịka nke ire ahịa (sales), agụmakwụkwọ mahadum (academia), ma ọ bụ nta akụkọ (journalism)..[28]

N'agbanyeghị eziokwu ahụ bụ na a na-akọwa afọ 1950 dị ka nloghachi n'ụlọ maka ụmụ nwanyị, enwere ihe atụ na ụmụ nwanyị na-arụ ọrụ n'oge Agha Ụwa nke Abụọ setịpụrụ ọnọdụ maka oge nke abụọ nke ụmụ nwanyị nke afọ 1960. Nzukọ kọleji na 1950s, nke kpaliri ihe ịrịba ama Betty Friedan "The Feminine Mystique" bụ ebe ụmụ nwanyị nọ n'ọkwá dị n'etiti na-ekwu maka ike ọgwụgwụ ha na-arụ ọrụ n'ụlọ ma site n'ime nke a na-achọpụta iwe ha na "ọgwụ ọjọọ" nke ịbụ onye na-elekọta ụlọ.[28] Ọ bụ ezie na afọ 1940 na 1950 emeghị ka e nwee ọganihu ọhụrụ nke ụmụ nwanyị ma ọ bụ ọtụtụ akwụkwọ ụmụ nwanyị, oge a tọrọ ntọala maka echiche ụmụ nwanyị n'ọdịnihu.[23]

Ugboro nke Abụọ nke Ụmụ nwanyị

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Ugboro nke Abụọ nke Ụmụ nwanyị na United States malitere na mbido afọ 1960. [29] N'ime ihe ka ukwuu n'afọ ndị 60 na njedebe n'afọ 1970, oge nke abụọ nke ụmụ nwanyị na-agbaso ụkpụrụ, "nke onwe bụ nke ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị". N'afọ 1963, Betty Friedan, nke The Second Sex metụtara, dere akwụkwọ kacha ere ahịa The Feminine Mystique nke o ji n'ụzọ doro anya megide onyinyo mgbasa ozi nke ụmụ nwanyị, na-ekwu na itinye ụmụ nwanyị n'ụlọ na-egbochi ohere ha, ma mebie nkà na ikike ha. O dere, onyinyo ezinụlọ zuru oke nke e gosipụtara ma na-ere ahịa n'oge ahụ, egosighi obi ụtọ ma na-emebi ụmụ nwanyị. A na-ekwu na akwụkwọ a malitere usoro nke abụọ nke ụmụ nwanyị na United States.

Ọzọkwa na 1963, onye nta akụkọ na-arụ ọrụ n'onwe ya Gloria Steinem nwetara ewu ewu n'etiti ndị na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị mgbe e bipụtara akwụkwọ akụkọ o dere mgbe ọ na-arụkọ ọrụ na nzuzo dị ka onye na-ere Playboy Bunny na Playboy Club dị ka akụkụ abụọ na mbipụta May na June nke Show. [30] Steinem kwuru na klọb ahụ na-emegbu ndị na-ere nri ya iji nweta ndị ahịa nwoke ma jiri Playboy Bunnies mee ihe dị ka ihe nnọchianya nke chauvinism nwoke, na-ekwu na akwụkwọ ntuziaka klọb nyere Bunnies ntụziaka na "e nwere ọtụtụ ụzọ na-atọ ụtọ ha nwere ike iji kpalie ọnụ ọgụgụ mmanya na-aba n'anya nke klọb". [30] Ka ọ na-erule afọ ime iwu kwadoro na nlekọta ụbọchị n'efu na-aghọ ebumnuche abụọ na-eduga maka ndị inyom. [31]

Nzukọ ahụ toro na mmeri iwu dị ka Iwu Ịkwụ Ụgwọ Ọha nke 1963, Isi nke VII nke Iwu Ikike Obodo nke 1964 (nke machibidoro ịkpa ókè nwoke na nwanyị n'ọrụ), na Griswold v. Ikpe Kasị Elu nke Connecticut nke 1965 (nke kwadoro ikike ịchịkwa ọmụmụ maka di na nwunye).[32][33][34] N'afọ 1966, Betty Friedan sonyeere ụmụ nwanyị na ụmụ nwoke ndị ọzọ iji guzobe National Organization for Women (NOW); a ga-akpọ Friedan dịka onye isi oche mbụ nke nzukọ ahụ.[35] Otu n'ime mmeri iwu kachasị mkpa nke òtù ahụ na ngwụcha afọ 1960 mgbe e guzobere NOW na 1966 bụ Iwu Nchịkwa nke 1967 nke na-agbatị ikike zuru oke maka ụmụ nwanyị, Eisenstadt v. Baird (1972), nke Ụlọikpe Kasị Elu kpebiri na ndị na-alụbeghị di nwere otu ikike ịchịkwa ọmụmụ dị ka ndị lụrụ di, na iwu kwadoro ịgba alụkwaghịm na-enweghị mmejọ (ọ bụ ezie na ọ bụghị iwu kwadoro na steeti niile ruo 2010).

Nzukọ ahụ nwetara mmeri ndị ọzọ n'afọ ndị 1970. The Title X Family Planning Program, nke a maara dị ka Public Law 91-572 ma ọ bụ "Population Research and Voluntary Family Planning Programme" ka e mere n'okpuru Onye isi ala Richard Nixon na 1970 dị ka akụkụ nke Public Health Service Act; ọ bụ naanị mmemme enyemaka gọọmentị etiti raara nye naanị inye ndị mmadụ atụmatụ ezinụlọ zuru oke na ọrụ mgbochi metụtara ya. Ikpe Ụlọikpe Kasị Elu Reed v. Reed (1971), bụ ikpe nke Ụlọikpe Kasụ Elu na nke mbụ ya tinyere Nkwupụta Nchebe Ọha nke Ndezigharị nke 14 iji kpochapụ iwu nke na-akpa ókè megide ụmụ nwanyị.[33][36] Ọzọkwa, ọ bụ ezie na Iwu Ịkwụ Ụgwọ Ọha nke 1963 ekpuchighị ndị isi, ndị nchịkwa, ndị na-ere ahịa n'èzí, na ndị ọkachamara, Ndezigharị Mmụta nke 1972 dezigharịrị ya ka o wee mee.[37] Ọzọkwa na 1972, ikpe Ụlọikpe Kasị Elu Eisenstadt na Baird kwadoro ikike igbochi ọmụmụ maka ndị na-alụbeghị di.[38] N'afọ ahụ kwa, Isi nke IX nke Ndezigharị Mmụta nke 1972 machibidoro ịkpa ókè nwoke na nwanyị n'ụlọ akwụkwọ ọha na eze na kọleji ọha. [39] N'afọ 1973, ikpe Roe na Wade nke Ụlọikpe Kasị Elu kwadoro ite ime.[40] N'afọ 1974, Iwu Equal Credit Opportunity mere ka ndị na-akwụ ụgwọ megide ndị na-achọ ịkwụ ụgwọ bụrụ ndị omempụ ịkpa ókè nwoke na nwanyị. [41][42] Ọzọkwa na 1974 a gbakwunyere mmekọahụ dị ka klas echedoro n'okpuru Fair Housing Act, si otú a machibido ịkpa ókè nwoke na nwanyị n'ụlọ iwu.[43] N'afọ 1974, e weputara iwu gbasara agụmakwụkwọ ụmụ nwanyị. Mpụ nke ndina n'ike n'alụmdi na nwunye na United States malitere n'etiti afọ ndị 1970 ma site na 1993 ndina n'ime alụmdi na nwunye ghọrọ mpụ na steeti 50 niile, n'okpuru ọ dịkarịa ala otu akụkụ nke iwu mmebi iwu mmekọahụ. N'afọ 1978, e wepụtara Iwu Ịkpa Ókè n'Ime; ọ bụ Iwu gọọmentị etiti United States nke gbanwere Isi nke asaa nke Iwu Ikike Obodo nke 1964 iji "machibido ịkpa ókè nwoke na nwanyị na ndabere nke ime ime". [44]

Nnukwu mmechuihu nke usoro ụmụ nwanyị nke abụọ na United States bụ President Nixon's 1972 veto of the Comprehensive Child Development Bill of 1972, nke ga-enye ọtụtụ ijeri dollar National daycare system.

Mmegharị feminizim n'ọgwụgwụ afọ ndị 1970, nke òtù National Organization for Women (NOW) duru, nwara obere oge ịmalite mmemme iji nyere ụmụ nwanyị ndị agadi a gbara alụkwaghịm na ndị di ha nwụrụ anwụ aka. Ọtụtụ ụmụ nwanyị di ha nwụrụ anwụ erughị eru ịnata uru nchekwa ọha (Social Security), ole na ole n'ime ndị a gbara alụkwaghịm na-enweta n'ezie ụgwọ nkwado di ma ọ bụ nwunye (alimony), ma mgbe ọtụtụ afọ nke ịrụ ọrụ dịka ndị na-elekọta ụlọ, ole na ole n'ime ha nwere nkà dị mkpa iji sonye n'ọrụ akwụ ụgwọ.

Otú ọ dị, mmemme ahụ zutere nkatọ siri ike sitere n'aka ndị na-eme ngagharị iwe na-eto eto, bụ ndị nyere ụmụ nwanyị ogbenye sitere n'ìgwè agbụrụ pere mpe mkpa karịa ụmụ nwanyị nke etiti klaasị (middle class). Ka ọ na-erule afọ 1980, NOW belatara nkwado ya maka mmemme ahụ n'ihi na ọ malitere ilekwasị anya fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ naanị na Equal Rights Amendment (ERA).

Phyllis Schlafly, onye ndu ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị na-akwado ọdịnala (conservative), jiri ohere a pụtara mee ihe. Ọ katọrọ ndị feminisiti maka ịhapụ ụmụ nwanyị ndị agadi nke etiti klaasị, karịsịa ndị di ha nwụrụ anwụ na ndị a gbara alụkwaghịm chọrọ enyemaka. Ọ dọkwara aka ná ntị na ERA ga-eme ka iwu bụrụ otu maka uru ụmụ nwoke, ma wepụkwa nchedo iwu ndị ụmụ nwanyị ndị agadi chọrọ nke ukwuu.

Isi mmechuihu nke mmegharị nke abụọ nke ụmụ nwanyị na United States bụ ọdịda iji kwado Federal Equal Rights Amendment. Ọ na-ekwu, "Ịha nhata nke ikike n'okpuru iwu agaghị agọnahụ ma ọ bụ belata site na United States ma ọ bụ steeti ọ bụla n'ihi mmekọahụ. " [45] Oge a kara aka maka nkwenye nke Ndezigharị Ikike Ọha gwụrụ na 1982. [46][47]

Ọ bụ ezie na United States bịanyere aka na Nkwekọrịta maka iwepụ ụdị ịkpa ókè niile megide ụmụ nwanyị na 1980, ọ dịtụbeghị mgbe a kwadoro ya.[48]

Ọtụtụ ndị ọkọ akụkọ ihe mere eme na-ele oge nke abụọ nke ụmụ nwanyị na America anya dị ka njedebe na mmalite afọ 1980 na Feminist Sex Wars, nkewa n'ime mmegharị ahụ n'ihe ndị dị ka mmekọahụ na ihe na-akpali agụụ mmekọahụ. Esemokwu ndị a butere oge nke atọ nke ụmụ nwanyị na mbido afọ 1990. [49] [50] [51][52][53]

Ọrụ mmekọahụ azụmahịa

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Na San Francisco na 1973, e guzobere Call Off Your Tired Old Ethics (COYOTE) ka ọ bụrụ òtù mbụ na-ahụ maka ikike ndị ọrụ mmekọahụ na America.[54] Malite site na Margo St. James, onye na-akpọ onwe ya onye onye na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị na onye na-arụ ọrụ mmekọahụ, COYOTE rụrụ ọrụ iji nye ndị ọrụ mmekọahụ ikike ọrụ na mkpebi onwe onye mmekọahụ. N'otu afọ ahụ, National Organization for Women (NOW) dere mkpebi iji kwado COYOTE, na-akpọ maka iwepụ ịgba akwụna.[54] Mgbe nke a gasịrị, COYOTE na NOW rụkọtara ọrụ ọnụ iji lụọ ọgụ iji mee ka Ndezigharị Ikike Ịha nhata (ERA), nke emesiri ghara ịgafe.

N'afọ 1978, e mere nzukọ ụmụ nwanyị mbụ gbasara ụlọ ọrụ na-ese ihe na-akpali agụụ mmekọahụ na San Francisco.[55] N'afọ sochirinụ, ihe karịrị ụmụ nwanyị 5,000 mere ngagharị na Times Square megide ihe na-akpali agụụ mmekọahụ, na-eme ka mmegide ụmụ nwanyị na-akpụ agụụ mmekọahụ sie ike. Ndị na-emegide ihe nkiri na-akpali agụụ mmekọahụ lere ihe na-akpụ akpụ anya dị ka ụzọ doro anya na nke mmekọahụ nke ụmụ nwoke na-edo ụmụ nwanyị n'okpuru ma na-eme ka ha ghara ịbụ mmadụ. Ha boro ihe na-akpali agụụ mmekọahụ ụta maka ọtụtụ n'ime ndina n'ike, ịgba akwụna, na mwakpo dị na United States. [56] N'afọ 1983, e dere iwu na-emegide ihe na-akpali agụụ mmekọahụ, nke Catharine MacKinnon na Andrea Dworkin dere ma chepụta, na Kansụl Obodo Minneapolis.[55] N'ikpeazụ, otu ìgwè ndị mmadụ meriri iwu ahụ bụ ndị chere na ụzọ ndị na-emegide ihe nkiri na-akpali agụụ mmekọahụ si ese mmetụta nke ihe nkiri na'akpali agụụ ahụ bụ nke na-akpa ókè nwoke na nwanyị ma mee ka ụmụ nwanyị, ọkachasị ndị na-arụ ọrụ mmekọahụ, yie ka ha enweghị ike inye nkwenye.[56] Mmeghachi omume sitere n'aka ndị na-emegide ihe na-akpali agụụ mmekọahụ mere ka otu akụkụ nke ndị na-akwado ụmụ nwanyị na-akpọ onwe ha "fuck me femists".[55] Ndị a bụ ụmụ nwanyị ndị kwadoro onwe ha site n’ịkpọghachi ma weghara echiche nke ime ka a na-ele ha anya dịka ihe mmekọahụ na mmegbu nke a na-ejibu megide ha. Ọ bụ ezie na nke a nwere ike ịpụta dịka echiche na-akwado ọrụ mmekọahụ (sex work), ọtụtụ n’ime ndị a a na-akpọ “feminists nke ụdị ‘fuck me’” na-ele ndị ọrụ mmekọahụ anya dịka ndị a na-emegbu ma ọ bụ ndị bụ ndị a na-akpagbu; ya mere, ha kwenyere na ndị a enweghị ike ịhọrọ n’eziokwu ihe na-eme n’ahụ ha..[55]

Ka ọ na-erule afọ 1985, nkwado a na-enye ịgba akwụna (prostitution) na ndị na-arụ ọrụ mmekọahụ (sex workers) na United States belatara nke ukwuu, ọkachasị n'ime mmegharị feminizim.[57] Nke a bụ, n'otu akụkụ, n'ihi echiche dịgasị iche iche banyere isiokwu ahụ nke ndị otu ụmụ nwanyị nwere. Echiche kachasị mkpa, nke ndị akwụna US Collective na Women Hurt na Systems of Prostitution Engaged in Revolt (WHISPER), kwadoro decriminalization dị ka ihe na-agafe agafe, mana n'ikpeazụ kwenyere na mwepụ nke ịgba akwụna.[54]

Echiche dị iche iche nke ụmụ nwanyị banyere ọrụ mmekọahụ
[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

E nwere ọtụtụ akụkụ dị iche iche n'ime òtù ụmụ nwanyị, akụkụ ọ bụla na-ewere nguzo nke ya n'okwu ọrụ mmekọahụ.

Ndị na-akwado ụmụ nwanyị Marxist kwenyere na ịgba akwụna bụ nsonaazụ nke akụrụngwa, ya mere, ndị na-arụ ọrụ mmekọahụ na-erigbu ndị na-achị achị, ma nke ahụ bụ onye na-ere ahịa ma ọ bụ nna ochie.[58] Ndị na-akwado ụmụ nwanyị Marxist kwenyere na ndị akwụna na-anọchi anya uru ụmụ nwanyị na ọha mmadụ, yana otu esi atụ uru nwanyị na mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya, mmekọahụ, na akụ na ụba.[57] Ndị na-akwado ụmụ nwanyị Marxist na-adaba n'òtù abolition nke ndị na-akwado nwanyị, ha na-ele iwepụ ịgba akwụna anya dị ka ogidi dị mkpa maka iwepu ndị isi.

Ndị na-akwado ụmụ nwanyị na-ekwu na mgbọrọgwụ nke mmegbu ụmụ nwanyị dị na mmekọahụ, mmekọahụ bụ ihe ndị ikom ga-ezu ohi, ree, zụta, zụọ, ma ọ bụ gbanwere.[58] Ndị na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị na-ele ịgba akwụna anya ọ bụghị dị ka ụlọ ọrụ, kama, dị ka ọnọdụ ụmụ nwanyị niile na-ahụ onwe ha. N'ihi na ha na-ele mmekọahụ niile anya dị ka ime ihe ike na imegbu ụmụ nwanyị, ndị na-akwado ụmụ nwanyị kwenyere na mwepụ nke ọrụ mmekọahụ.[58]

A na-ekewa ndị na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị n'ụzọ na-enweghị isi n'etiti arụmụka nke ma ọrụ mmekọahụ niile na-eweda ụmụ nwanyị ala, na arụmụka na ọrụ mmekọahụ bụ ọrụ, a ga-emekwa ya dị ka nke a. N'ụzọ ọ bụla, ndị na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị nwere nnwere onwe kwenyere na iwu kwadoro ọrụ mmekọahụ, dịka mpụ machibidoro ikike ụmụ nwanyị nwere ịchịkwa ahụ ha.[58]

Ndị na-ahụ maka ọtụtụ ụmụ nwanyị na-ajụ echiche abụọ nke ndị ọzọ na-ahụ ụwa. Ha anaghị ele ụwa anya dị ka nke nwere ihe na ihe ọjọọ, ma ọ bụ ihe dị mma na ihe na-adịghị mma, ebe ọ na-emepụta binaries ebe a na-eto otu ụdị echiche, ma na-akatọ nke ọzọ.[58] Mgbe ọ na-abịa n'ọrụ mmekọahụ, echiche ndị inyom na-ahụ maka mmekọahụ enweghị echiche a kapịrị ọnụ banyere iwu. Kama nke ahụ, ha kwenyere na ndị ọrụ mmekọahụ kwesịrị ikwu okwu megide mkparị nke ha nke binary mepụtara, nakwa na ndị na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị kwesịrị iburu echiche na ahụmịhe ndị ọrụ mmekọahụ n'uche mgbe ha na-emepụta nke ha.[58]

N'ihi ọtụtụ nkewa n'ime òtù ụmụ nwanyị na isiokwu nke ọrụ mmekọahụ, nnukwu òtù dị ka NOW họọrọ ilekwasị anya n'ihe gbasara ikike ụmụ nwanyị zuru ụwa ọnụ dịka ite ime.[59] Ọ bụ ezie na ọ ka na-ese okwu, ikike ọmụmụ dị obere ma hapụ ndị inyom kewara naanị abụọ ma ọ bụ karịa nkewa, kama ọtụtụ. Tụkwasị na nke a, ikike ịmụ nwa nwere mmetụta na nwanyị ọ bụla na mba a, kama otu ìgwè ụmụ nwanyị, nke mere ka ọ dịkwuo mma maka nnukwu òtù.[59]

Ndị na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị anaghị anabata ndị ọrụ mmekọahụ mgbe niile, ọbụna ndị na-ahụ Maka ụmụ nwanyị na-akwado iwepụ ma ọ bụ iwu nke ọrụ mmekọahụ. Ha mepụtara oghere dị nchebe maka ụmụ nwanyị, ọkachasị ụmụ nwanyị na-edina nwoke, ebe ndị na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị nwere ike ikwu okwu ma bụrụ onwe ha.[60] Ikike iji ahụ ha na mmekọahụ dị oke mkpa n'ebe ndị a dị nchebe, ụmụ nwanyị na-agba egwú ọnụ, mgbe ụfọdụ na-ewepụ elu ha dị ka ngosipụta nke nkasi obi na nwanyị ha.[60] N'agbanyeghị ebumnuche nke ebe ndị a bụ ebe dị nchebe maka ụmụ nwanyị, o mere ka o doo anya na ebe ndị a abụghị ndị rụrụ arụ, nke pụtara na ebe ụfọdụ ụmụ nwoke nwere ike iburu ụmụ nwanyị ka ha nwee mmekọahụ, ma ọ bụ na ọ bụghị. N'ihi ihere metụtara ndị ọrụ mmekọahụ, ọkachasị ọtụtụ ndị ọrụ mmekọahụ na-agakarị n'otu ebe ahụ, a nabataghị ndị ọrụ mmekọahụ n'ozuzu ha n'ebe nchekwa ụmụ nwanyị ndị a dịka ụmụ nwanyị chere na ọ mebiri nkasi obi ha.[60] Ọ bụ ezie na a machibidoghị ya iwu, ndị ọrụ mmekọahụ chere na ha nọpụrụ iche n'ime oghere ndị a ma na-ezere ha.

Ugboro nke atọ nke ụmụ nwanyị

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Ugboro nke atọ nke ụmụ nwanyị na United States malitere na mbido afọ 1990. [61][62] N'afọ 1991, Anita Hill boro Clarence Thomas, nwoke a họpụtara na Ụlọikpe Kasị Elu nke United States, ebubo iyi egwu mmekọahụ. Thomas gọnahụrụ ebubo ahụ, mgbe arụmụka sara mbara gasịrị, Senate nke United States tụụrụ vootu 52-48 na-akwado Thomas.[63][64][65] N'afọ 1992, na nzaghachi maka ikpe iyi egwu mmekọahụ nke Anita Hill, onye America na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị Rebecca Walker bipụtara otu isiokwu na Magazin <i id="mwAqI">Ms.</i> nke akpọrọ "Becoming the Third Wave" nke o kwuru, "Abụghị m onye na-ahụkarị ụmụ nwanyị. Abụ m onye nke atọ, nke chepụtara okwu ahụ bụ "nke atọ". [62] [66] Ọzọkwa na 1992, ọ bụ Walker na onye America na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị Shannon Liss (nke bụ Shannon Lass-Riordan ugbu a) guzobere ụlọ ọrụ Third Wave Direct Action Corporation dị ka otu agbụrụ dị iche iche, ọdịbendị dị iche iche. Ebumnuche mbụ nke nzukọ ahụ bụ iji mejupụta oghere dị n'etiti ndị ndu ụmụ agbọghọ na iji mee ka ndị na-eto eto tinye aka na mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị na obodo ha.[67]

Na mbido afọ 1990, ọgba aghara grrrl malitere na Olympia, Washington na Washington, D.C.; ọ chọrọ inye ụmụ nwanyị ike ịchịkwa olu ha na ngosipụta nka. [68] Otú ọ dị, nkwenye nke riot grrrl na njirimara nwanyị zuru ụwa ọnụ na nkewa na-apụtakarị na-ejikọta ya na nke abụọ nke ụmụ nwanyị karịa nke atọ.[69] Ndị na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị nke atọ chọrọ ịjụ ajụjụ, weghachite, ma kọwaa echiche, okwu, na mgbasa ozi nke na-enyefe echiche banyere okike, ọrụ okike, nwanyị, ịma mma, na mmekọahụ, n'etiti ihe ndị ọzọ. Ugboro atọ nke ụmụ nwanyị hụrụ ọtụtụ ihe oyiyi ụmụ nwanyị ọhụrụ dịka Madonna, Queen Latifah, Angelina Jolie, Emma Watson, Beyoncé, na Lady Gaga, yana ndị edemede dị ka Buffy na Mulan.[70] Ndị na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị nke atọ jikwa Intanet na teknụzụ ọgbara ọhụrụ ndị ọzọ mee ihe iji bulie mmegharị ha, nke nyere ohere maka ozi na nhazi iru ndị na-ege ntị ka ukwuu. Ndị na-ege ntị a mụbara na ọtụtụ ndị ikom a ma ama dịka Aziz Ansari na Leonardo DiCaprio.  Here is the Igbo translation of the passage: Ọganihu na-esiwanye ike nke ibipụta ihe n’Ịntanet mere ka e-zines (magazin eletrọnik) na blọgụ bụrụ ihe a na-ahụkarị ebe niile. Ọtụtụ ndị ode akwụkwọ onwe ha, tinyere òtù dị iche iche, chọpụtara na Ịntanet nyere ha ohere maka ịkekọrịta ozi na ibipụta edemede na vidio ndị na-egosi echiche ha ruo n’ihu ọtụtụ ndị nwere ike ịbụ ndị na-ege ntị buru ibu.

Ịntanet gbanwere nke ukwuu n’ụzọ sara mbara ọdịnaya nke mmegharị ụmụ nwanyị (feminist movement) n’ihe gbasara ndị na-esonye, ụdị ngosi ya, na ụdị okwu na nsogbu a na-elebara anya.

N'ime afọ 1980 na 1990, omume a gara n'ihu ka ndị ọkà mmụta egwu dị ka Susan McClary na Marcia Citron malitere ịtụle ihe kpatara ọdịbendị maka iwepụ ụmụ nwanyị n'ọrụ a natara. Echiche ndị dị ka egwu dị ka okwu gbasara nwoke na nwanyị; ọkachamara; nnabata nke egwu ụmụ nwanyị; nyocha nke saịtị mmepụta egwu; akụ na ụba na agụmakwụkwọ ụmụ nwanyị; ọmụmụ egwu a ma ama gbasara njirimara ụmụ nwanyị; echiche nna ochie na nyocha egwu; na echiche nke okike na ọdịiche so n'ime isiokwu ndị a nyochara n'oge a. N'oge nke atọ nke ụmụ nwanyị, okwu nke ndị transgender na ọrụ ha na mmegharị ahụ ghọrọ isiokwu a ma ama nke mkparịta ụka n'etiti ọtụtụ ndị na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị mgbe ndị na-akwado ụmụ nwanyị nke atọ malitere ịjụ ajụjụ banyere ọdịdị abụọ, nke okike na mmekọahụ. TERF, nke na-anọchite anya trans-exclusionary radical femism ghọrọ okwu a na-agwa ndị na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị na-ele ụmụ nwanyị trans anya dị ka ihe iyi egwu nye ụmụ nwanyị ndị ọzọ nọ n'òtù ahụ.[71]

Ugboro nke anọ nke ụmụ nwanyị

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Fourth-wave femism na-ezo aka na mmeghachi omume nke mmasị na femism nke malitere n'ihe dị ka afọ 2012 ma jikọta ya na ojiji nke mgbasa ozi mmekọrịta.[4] Dị ka onye ọkà mmụta ụmụ nwanyị Prudence Chamberlain si kwuo, ihe a na-elekwasị anya na nke anọ bụ ikpe ziri ezi maka ụmụ nwanyị na mmegide megide iyi egwu mmekọahụ na ime ihe ike megide ụmụ nwanyị. Isi ihe ya, ka ọ na-ede, bụ "enweghị okwukwe na àgwà ụfọdụ ka nwere ike ịdị".

"A na-akọwa ụmụ nwanyị nke anọ site na teknụzụ" dị ka Kira Cochrane si kwuo, a na-ejikwa Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, YouTube, Tumblr, na blọọgụ dịka Feministing iji merie ụmụ nwanyị na ịha nhata nwoke na nwanyị. [4] [72][73] Enwere ike ịkọwawanye echiche ụmụ nwanyị nke anọ site na ilekwasị anya na intersectionality na ịgbasawanye echiche banyere njirimara nwoke na nwanyị. [74][75]

Nsogbu ndị ụmụ nwanyị nke anọ na-elekwasị anya na-agụnye iyi egwu n'okporo ámá na n'ebe ọrụ, mwakpo mmekọahụ na campus na omenala ndina n'ike. Ihe ihere metụtara iyi egwu, mmetọ, na igbu ụmụ nwanyị na ụmụ agbọghọ akpaliwo òtù ahụ. Na United States, ndị a gụnyere Ikpe mwakpo mmekọahụ Bill Cosby, igbu ọchụ nke 2014 Isla Vista, na Ebubo Harvey Weinstein nke 2017, nke malitere American Me Too movement ma duga n'ihe omume yiri ya n'ụwa niile.[76]

Ihe atụ nke mkpọsa ụmụ nwanyị nke anọ na United States gụnyere Mattress Performance, The Time's Up Now movement, na 10 Hours of Walking in NYC as a Woman.

Nkatọ

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Pauline Terrelonge Stone dere na Feminist Consciousness and Black Women, "Ịkpa ókè agbụrụ gbanyesiri mkpọrọgwụ ike na ọdịbendị America, ma gbanyesie mkpọrọgwụ n'etiti ụmụ nwanyị ọcha, nke na ụmụ nwanyị ojii anaghị anabata na ihe ọ bụla na-emetụta nwanyị ọcha nwekwara ike imetụta ha. "[77]

Ndị na-akatọ okwu ụmụ nwanyị na-ezo aka na akụkọ ihe mere eme na-acha ọcha nke na-ewepu ma ọ bụ na-ebelata ọrụ ụmụ nwanyị na na-acha ọbara ọbara na-arụ n'ime na-enweghị òtù ụmụ nwanyị, yana ihe mgbochi dị iche iche ụmụ nwanyị na'ihu.[78] Ida Bell Wells-Barnett, onye dị mkpa n'ime òtù ụmụ nwanyị mbụ, chere mmegide sitere n'aka ndị isi ụmụ nwanyị ọcha dịka Rebecca Latimer Felton na Frances Willard ihu, bụ ndị hụrụ òtù ụmụ nwanyị dị ka ndị Anglo Saxon na-achụso ma wuo okwu ha banyere ịdị elu ndị ọcha: "Agbụgba Anglo-Saxon, " Willard dere, "agaghị edo onwe ya n'okpuru ka ndị Negro na-achịkwa ya ma ọ bụrụhaala na ịdị elu ya erughị nnwere onwe onwe onwe onwe nke saloon. "[79]

Ka ọ na-erule afọ 1970 na 1980, ụmụ nwanyị Africa-America emeela ka ha mara mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya site n'ịkwupụta enweghị afọ ojuju na nnọchite anya ụmụ nwanyị ojii n'Okwu ụmụ nwanyị.[80] N'afọ 1981, onye na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị na onye edemede Audre Lorde kwuru, sị: "Gịnị nwanyị nọ ebe a nwere mmasị na mmegbu nke ya nke na ọ pụghị ịhụ ka ọ na-ebipụta n'ihu nwanyị ọzọ? Gịnị ka okwu mmegbu nke ụmụ nwanyị ghọrọ ihe dị oké ọnụ ahịa ma dị mkpa nye ya dị ka tiketi n'ime ndị ezi omume, pụọ n'ikuku oyi nke onwe onye na-enyocha onwe onye? ... Anyị na-anabata ụmụ nwanyị niile nwere ike izute anyị, karịa ihe ọzọ, karịa ebumnuche na-enweghị isi na karịa otu edemede Black Crensity nke ịkpa ókè agbụrụ ya. O kwuru, sị, "Ebumnuche nke ọrụ a kwesịrị ịbụ ime ka ọ dịrị ndị a na-akparaghị ókè mfe itinye aka na ha nwere ike ịsị: "Mgbe ha banyere, anyị niile na-abanye. "[81]

Hụkwa

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

 

  • Flexner (1996). Century of Struggle: The Woman's Rights Movement in the United States. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674106539. 
  • Echols (1990). Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967–1975. 
  • Rosen (2006). The World Split Open: How the Modern Women's Movement Changed America. Penguin Publishing. ISBN 0670814628. 
  1. ↑ Feminism – Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary. merriam-webster.com. Archived from the original on 22 November 2019. Retrieved on 12 June 2011.
  2. ↑ Definition of feminism noun from Cambridge Dictionary Online: Free English Dictionary and Thesaurus. dictionary.cambridge.org. Archived from the original on 29 May 2015. Retrieved on 12 June 2011.
  3. 1 2 Engel. What Are the Three Waves of Feminism?. Answers. Archived from the original on July 14, 2014. Retrieved on June 30, 2014.
  4. 1 2 3 Cochrane. "The Fourth Wave of Feminism: Meet the Rebel Women", The Guardian, 10 December 2013. Retrieved on 9 February 2018.
  5. ↑ Keller (2006). Encyclopedia of women and religion ... – Google Books. Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253346865. Retrieved on June 29, 2011. 
  6. 1 2 3 4 seneca falls. Npg.si.edu. Archived from the original on July 9, 2011. Retrieved on June 29, 2011.
  7. 1 2 3 4 The Susan B. Anthony Center for Women's Leadership :: Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton. Rochester.edu. Archived from the original on June 28, 2011. Retrieved on June 29, 2011.
  8. 1 2 3 Women's Rights National Historical Park – Women's Rights Movement (U.S. National Park Service). Nps.gov (August 17, 2010). Archived from the original on December 29, 2010. Retrieved on June 29, 2011.
  9. ↑ Legacy '98: A Short History of the Movement. Legacy98.org (September 19, 2001). Archived from the original on July 13, 2011. Retrieved on June 29, 2011.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Votes for Women: Timeline. Memory.loc.gov (August 26, 1920). Archived from the original on August 14, 2017. Retrieved on June 29, 2011.
  11. ↑ Wyoming grants women the vote — History.com This Day in History — 12/10/1869 (16 November 2009). Archived from the original on 2021-03-28. Retrieved on 2014-07-11.
  12. ↑ Beeton (1986). Women vote in the West: the Woman Suffrage Movement, 1869–1896. New York: Garland Science. ISBN 978-0-8240-8251-2. 
  13. ↑ Danilov (2005). Women and museums: a comprehensive guide. Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press. ISBN 978-0-7591-0854-7. 
  14. ↑ Linder. The Susan B. Anthony Trial: A Chronology. Law.umkc.edu. Archived from the original on October 21, 2010. Retrieved on June 29, 2011.
  15. ↑ The LOC.GOV Wise Guide : The First Woman to Run for President ... 50 Years Ago?. Loc.gov. Archived from the original on June 27, 2011. Retrieved on June 29, 2011.
  16. ↑ Who Is Victoria Woodhull?. Victoria-woodhull.com. Archived from the original on July 17, 2011. Retrieved on June 29, 2011.
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  19. 1 2 How World War II Empowered Women. www.history.com (2 July 2018). Archived from the original on 2020-10-18. Retrieved on 2020-10-19.
  20. ↑ Wayne (2019). Women's Rights in the United States: A comprehensive encyclopedia of issues, events and people. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, LLC, 33–343. ISBN 9781610692151. 
  21. 1 2 Marcellus (2005). "Bo's'n's Whistle': Representing "Rosie the Riveter" on the Job". American Journalism 22 (2): 83–108. DOI:10.1080/08821127.2005.10677641. Retrieved on 2020-10-19. 
  22. 1 2 3 Honey (2003). Creating Rosie the Riveter: class, gender, and propaganda during World War II. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 83–108. ISBN 1-122-05179-4. 
  23. 1 2 Mullenbach (2013). Double Victory: How African American Women Broke Race and Gender Barriers to Help Win World War II. Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 5–38. ISBN 978-1-56976-808-2. 
  24. ↑ Congress of American Women (2015). "The Position of the American Woman Today". Women's Rights in the United States: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Issues, Events, and People 3: 329–330. Templeeti:ProQuest. 
  25. ↑ Bailey (September 2006). "The Wage Gains of African-American Women in the 1940s" (in en). The Journal of Economic History 66 (3): 737–777. DOI:10.1017/S0022050706000313. ISSN 1471-6372. 
  26. 1 2 Stern (1949). "Women are Household Slaves". American Mercury 68: 71–76. Templeeti:ProQuest. 
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  28. 1 2 Wayne (2014). Women's Rights in the United States : A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Issues, Events, and People. ABC-CLIO, 339. ISBN 9781610692144. 
  29. ↑ Second Wave Feminist. Association of Women Professionals (Jan 2014). Archived from the original on July 14, 2014. Retrieved on June 30, 2014.
  30. 1 2 Farber (2004). The Sixties Chronicle. Legacy Publishing. ISBN 141271009X. 
  31. ↑ Farber (2004). The Sixties Chronicle. Legacy Publishing. ISBN 141271009X. 
  32. ↑ Hornig (Jan 1, 1979). Climbing the Academic Ladder: Doctoral Women Scientists in Academe : a Report to the Office of Science and Technology Policy from the Committee on the Education and Employment of Women in Science and Engineering, Commission on Human Resources, National Research Council. Washington DC: National Academy of Sciences. ISBN 0309028809. 
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  36. ↑ McCarthy (November 14, 2011). Reed v. Reed at 40: A Landmark Decision. National Women's Law Center (NWLC). Archived from the original on July 14, 2014. Retrieved on July 12, 2014.
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  38. ↑ Dunlap (March 22, 2013). Eisenstadt v. Baird: The 41st Anniversary of Legal Contraception for Single People. RH Reality Check. Archived from the original on June 22, 2017. Retrieved on July 12, 2014.
  39. ↑ Greenhouse. "Court opens path for student suits in sex-bias cases", The New York Times, February 27, 1992. Retrieved on July 12, 2014.
  40. ↑ "Abortion Rate in 1994 Hit a 20-Year Low", The New York Times, January 5, 1997. Retrieved on July 12, 2014.
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  66. ↑ Rebecca (January 1992). "Becoming the Third Wave". Ms.: 39–41. ISSN 0047-8318. 
  67. ↑ Third Wave Foundation. History. Third Wave Foundation. Archived from the original on 2012-10-07. Retrieved on 2012-10-31.
  68. ↑ Rowe-Finkbeiner (2004). The F-Word. Emeryville: Seal Press. ISBN 978-1-58005-114-9. OCLC 55504351. 
  69. ↑ Rosenberg (1998). "Riot Grrrl: Revolutions from Within". Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 23 (3: Feminisms and Youth Cultures): 809–841. DOI:10.1086/495289. ISSN 0097-9740. 
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  71. ↑ Morgenroth (2024). "Sex Wars and TERF Wars: The Divisiveness of Who is Included in Feminism". Sex Roles 90 (6): 676–705. DOI:10.1007/s11199-024-01473-2. 
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  73. ↑ Zerbisias (16 September 2015). Feminism's Fourth Wave is the Shitlist. NOW Toronto. Archived from the original on 28 July 2019. Retrieved on 21 April 2016.
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  76. ↑ For Isla Vista killings, see Bennett. "Behold the Power of #Hashtag Feminism", Time, 10 September 2014. Retrieved on 17 November 2024.
  77. ↑ Simons (1979). "Racism and Feminism: A Schism in the Sisterhood". Feminist Studies 5 (2): 384–401. DOI:10.2307/3177603. ISSN 0046-3663. 
  78. ↑ Ortega (January 23, 2006). "Being Lovingly, Knowingly Ignorant: White Feminism and Women of Color". Hypatia 21 (3): 56–74. DOI:10.1111/j.1527-2001.2006.tb01113.x. 
  79. ↑ Feimster (2009). Southern Horrors. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 82. 
  80. ↑ Hill Collins. "What's in a Name? Womanism, Black Feminism, and Beyond". The Black Scholar Winter/Spring 1996: 9. 
  81. ↑ Williams Crenshaw (1989). Marginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum. Archived from the original on 2017-10-05. Retrieved on 2017-10-04.
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