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Plasmodium

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Plasmodium bụ ụdị eukaryotes dị iche iche nke bụ nje ndị na-akpata ọrịa vertebrates na ụmụ ahụhụ. Usoro ndụ nke ụdị Plasmodium gụnyere mmepe nke ụmụ ahụhụ na-enye ọbara, nke na-etinye nje ndị na-akpata ọrịa n'ime onye na-enye ọbara n'oge nri ọbara. Parasites na-etolite n'ime anụ ahụ vertebrates (ọtụtụ mgbe imeju) tupu ha abanye n'ọbara iji bute mkpụrụ ndụ ọbara uhie. Mbibi nke mkpụrụ ndụ ọbara uhie ndị na-abata nwere ike ibute ịba. N'oge ọrịa a, ụmụ ahụhụ na-enye ọbara na-eburu ụfọdụ nje ndị na-akpata ọrịa (anwụnta n'ọtụtụ ọnọdụ), na-aga n'ihu na usoro ndụ.[1]

Plasmodium bụ otu n'ime phylum Apicomplexa, otu nnukwu ìgwè eukaryotes parasitic. N'ime Apicomplexa, Plasmodium dị n'usoro Haemosporida na ezinụlọ Plasmodiidae. Akọwala ihe karịrị ụdị Plasmodium 200, ọtụtụ n'ime ha kewara n'ime obere mkpụrụ ndụ iri na anọ dabere na ọdịdị nje na oke nnabata. Mmekọrịta evolushọn n'etiti ụdị Plasmodium dị iche iche anaghị agbaso ókèala taxonomic mgbe niile; ụfọdụ ụdị ndị yiri onwe ha n'ụzọ ọdịdị ma ọ bụ ndị na-ebute otu nnabata ahụ na-aghọ ndị nwere njikọ dị anya.

A na-ekesa ụdị Plasmodium n'ụwa niile ebe ọ bụla enwere ndị ọbịa kwesịrị ekwesị. Ọtụtụ mgbe, ndị na-elekọta ụmụ ahụhụ bụ anwụnta nke ụdị Culex na Anopheles. Ndị na-elekọta anụ ọhịa gụnyere anụ na-akpụ akpụ, nnụnụ, na anụmanụ na-enye nwa ara. Charles Laveran chọpụtara nje Plasmodium na ngwụcha narị afọ nke 19. N'ime narị afọ nke 20, achọpụtara ọtụtụ ụdị ndị ọzọ n'ọtụtụ ebe obibi ma kewaa ha, gụnyere ụdị ise na-ebutekarị ọrịa mmadụ: P. vivax, P. falciparum, P. malariae, P. ovale, na P. knowlesi. P. falciparum bụ nke kachasị egbu mmadụ, nke na-akpata ọtụtụ narị puku ọnwụ kwa afọ. Emepụtala ọtụtụ ọgwụ iji gwọọ ọrịa Plasmodium; agbanyeghị, nje ndị ahụ agbanweela iguzogide ọgwụ ọ bụla emepụtara.

Ọ bụ ezie na nje ahụ nwekwara ike ibute ọrịa site na mmịnye ọbara, nke a dị oke ụkọ, a pụghịkwa ịgbasa Plasmodium site n'otu onye gaa na onye ọzọ. Ụfọdụ ụdị Plasmodium bụ nje ndị a na-etinye n'ime ahụ.

Plasmodium bụ eukaryote mana o nwere ihe ndị pụrụ iche.

Ụdị Plasmodium nwere eukaryotes niile dị na phylum Apicomplexa nke na-agafe usoro mmeghari asexual nke merogony n'ime mkpụrụ ndụ ọbara uhie nke ndị ọbịa ma na-emepụta pigment crystalline hemozoin dị ka ihe si na hemoglobin onye ọbịa gbarie.[2] Ụdị Plasmodium nwere ọtụtụ ihe ndị yiri eukaryotes ndị ọzọ, yana ụfọdụ ndị pụrụ iche na phylum ma ọ bụ genus ha. A na-ekewa mkpụrụ ndụ Plasmodium n'ime kromozom 14 dị na nucleus. Parasites Plasmodium na-ejigide otu mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa ha n'ọtụtụ usoro ndụ, na-amụba mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa ahụ ugboro abụọ naanị maka obere mgbanwe mmekọahụ n'ime etiti afọ nke onye na-elekọta ụmụ ahụhụ ahụ.[3] E jikọtara ya na nucleus ahụ bụ endoplasmic reticulum (ER), nke na-arụ ọrụ n'otu aka ahụ na ER na eukaryotes ndị ọzọ. A na-ebufe protein site na ER gaa na ngwa Golgi nke na-abụkarị otu akụkụ nke nwere membrane na Apicomplexans.[4] Site n'ebe a, a na-ebuga protein n'ime akụkụ sel dị iche iche ma ọ bụ n'elu sel.[4]

Dịka ndị ọzọ apicomplexans, ụdị Plasmodium nwere ọtụtụ usoro sel n'akụkụ apical nke nje ahụ nke na-eje ozi dị ka organelles pụrụ iche maka izochi ihe ndị na-eme ka ihe dị ndụ banye n'ime onye ọbịa ahụ. Ndị kacha pụta ìhè bụ rhoptries bulbous nke nwere protein parasites ndị na-etinye aka na mwakpo nke sel onye ọbịa ahụ ma gbanwee onye ọbịa ahụ ozugbo ọ banyere n'ime.[5] N'akụkụ rhoptries ahụ, e nwere obere ihe owuwu a na-akpọ micronemes nke nwere protein nje ndị dị mkpa maka mmegharị ahụ yana ịmata ma jikọta na mkpụrụ ndụ ndị ọbịa.[6] A na-ahụ vesicles nzuzo nke a na-akpọ dense granules nke nwere protein parasitophorus nke na-eme mgbanwe n'akpụkpọ ahụ nke na-ekewapụ parasitophorus na onye ọbịa, nke a na-akpọ parasitophorous vacuole nke gbasaara n'ime nje ahụ.[6]

Ụdị Plasmodium nwekwara nnukwu akụkụ abụọ nke na-ejikọta akpụkpọ ahụ nke sitere na endosymbiotic, mitochondrion na apicoplast, ha abụọ na-arụ ọrụ dị mkpa na metabolism nke nje ahụ. N'adịghị ka mkpụrụ ndụ anụmanụ nke nwere ọtụtụ mitochondria, mkpụrụ ndụ Plasmodium nwere otu nnukwu mitochondrion nke na-ahazi nkewa ya na nke mkpụrụ ndụ Plasmodium.[7] Dịka ọ dị na eukaryotes ndị ọzọ, Plasmodium mitochondrion nwere ike imepụta ike n'ụdị ATP site na okirikiri citric acid; agbanyeghị, ọrụ a dị mkpa naanị maka ndụ nje na onye na-elekọta ụmụ ahụhụ ahụ, ọ dịghịkwa mkpa maka uto na mkpụrụ ndụ ọbara uhie.[7] E si n'ihe gbasara endosymbiosis nke abụọ nweta organelle nke abụọ, nke a na-akpọ apicoplast, n'ọnọdụ a, nna ochie Plasmodium nwetara alga uhie.[8] Apicoplast na-etinye aka na mmepụta nke ihe ndị na-ebute ụzọ metabolic dị iche iche, gụnyere abụba abụba, isoprenoids, ụyọkọ ígwè-sọlfọ, na akụkụ nke ụzọ heme biosynthesis.[9]

Okirikiri ndụ

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Usoro ndụ nke ụdị na-emetụta ụmụ mmadụ
Ụdị mgbaaka nke Plasmodium n'ime mkpụrụ ndụ ọbara ọbara mmadụ (Giemsa stain)

Usoro ndụ nke Plasmodium gụnyere ọtụtụ usoro dị iche iche n'ime ụmụ ahụhụ na ụmụ anụmanụ. A na-ewebata nje ndị a n'ime anụ anụmanụ site na nta ahụhụ nke ụmụ ahụhụ (ọ na-abụkarị anwụnta, ewezuga ụfọdụ ụdị anụ ọhịa Plasmodium).[10] Nje na-ebu ụzọ bute ọrịa imeju ma ọ bụ anụ ahụ ndị ọzọ, ebe ha na-eme otu nnukwu mgbanwe tupu ha apụọ na mkpụrụ ndụ ahụ wee bute erythrocytes.[11] N'oge a, ụfọdụ ụdị Plasmodium nke primates nwere ike ịmepụta ogbo ụra ogologo oge a na-akpọ hypnozoite, [12][13] Agbanyeghị, maka ọtụtụ ụdị Plasmodium, nje ndị dị na mkpụrụ ndụ imeju ndị butere ọrịa bụ naanị ihe a na-akpọ merozoites. Mgbe ha si n'ime imeju pụta, ha na-abanye na mkpụrụ ndụ ọbara uhie, dịka akọwara n'elu. Ha na-agafe usoro na-aga n'ihu nke ọrịa erythrocyte, ebe obere pasentị nke nje ndị na-ekewapụ onwe ha gaa na ọkwa mmekọahụ a na-akpọ gametocyte nke onye ọbịa ahụhụ na-eri nri ọbara. N'ụfọdụ ndị ọbịa, mwakpo nke erythrocytes site na ụdị Plasmodium nwere ike ibute ọrịa, nke a na-akpọ ịba. Nke a nwere ike ịdị njọ mgbe ụfọdụ, na-esochi ngwa ngwa ọnwụ nke onye ọbịa (dịka ọmụmaatụ P. falciparum n'ime mmadụ). Na ndị ọbịa ndị ọzọ, ọrịa Plasmodium nwere ike ịbụ ihe na-egosi na ọ nweghị ihe mgbaàmà.[10]

Ọ bụrụgodị na ụmụ mmadụ nwere ụdị ọrịa plasmodial dị otu a, enwere ike inwe ọtụtụ nje ndị na-amụba amụba zoro ezo, ọkachasị, splin na ụmị ọkpụkpụ. N'ezie, nke a metụtara nke P. vivax. A na-eche na nje ndị a zoro ezo (na mgbakwunye na hypnozoites) bụ isi ihe kpatara ọrịa ịba P. vivax ugboro ugboro.[14]

Sporozoites, otu n'ime ọtụtụ ụdị dị iche iche nke nje, site na anwụnta

N'ime mkpụrụ ndụ ọbara uhie, merozoites na-eto n'ime ọbara ruo mgbe ha ga-adị ka mgbaaka wee bụrụ nke buru ibu, wee bụrụ nke a na-akpọ trophozoite. Trophozoites na-etolite ruo mgbe ha ga-aghọ schizonts nke na-ekewa ugboro ugboro iji mepụta merozoites ọhụrụ. Mkpụrụ ndụ ọbara uhie ndị butere ọrịa ahụ na-agbawa, na-ekwe ka merozoites ọhụrụ gaa n'ime ọbara iji bute mkpụrụ ndụ ọbara uhie ọhụrụ. Ọtụtụ merozoites na-aga n'ihu na usoro ọmụmụ a, mana ụfọdụ merozoites mgbe ha butere mkpụrụ ndụ ọbara uhie na-ekewa n'ime ụdị mmekọahụ nwoke ma ọ bụ nwanyị a na-akpọ gametocytes. Mkpụrụ ndụ ọbara ndị a na-agbasa n'ọbara ruo mgbe ha ga-ebuga ha mgbe anwụnta na-eri anụ ahụ nwere ọrịa ahụ, na-eburu ọbara nke gụnyere sel gametocytes.[11]

N'ime anwụnta ahụ, sel gametocytes na-agagharị na nri ọbara gaa n'etiti afọ anwụnta. N'ebe a, sel gametocytes na-etolite ghọọ sel nwoke na nwanyị nke na-eme ka ha nwee ike ịgbara ibe ha mmiri, na-emepụta zygote. Zygotes na-etolite ghọọ ụdị mmegharị ahụ a na-akpọ ookinete, nke na-abanye na mgbidi nke midgut. Mgbe ha gafere mgbidi midgut, ookinete na-abanye n'ime akpụkpọ ahụ mpụta afọ wee ghọọ oocyst. Oocysts na-ekewa ọtụtụ ugboro iji mepụta nnukwu ọnụọgụ nke sporozoites ogologo. Sporozoite ndị a na-akwaga na gland salivary nke anwụnta ebe a pụrụ ịgba ha n'ọbara nke ata anwụnta na-esote, na-emegharị usoro ahụ.[11]

Evolution na taxonomy

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Ọkpụkpụ anwụnta kacha ochie na Plasmodium Dominicana, afọ 15-20 nde

Nchịkọta

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Plasmodium bụ nke phylum Apicomplexa, otu ìgwè nje ndị nwere otu mkpụrụ ndụ nwere akụkụ nzuzo pụrụ iche n'otu nsọtụ nke mkpụrụ ndụ ahụ.[15] N'ime Apicomplexa, Plasmodium dị n'okpuru usoro Haemosporida, otu nke gụnyere apicomplexans niile bi n'ime mkpụrụ ndụ ọbara.[16] Dabere na ọnụnọ nke hemozoin pigment na usoro nke ịmụpụta ụmụ nwoke na nwanyị, usoro ahụ kewara n'ime ezinụlọ anọ, nke Plasmodium dị na ezinụlọ Plasmodiidae.[17]

Ụdị Plasmodium nwere ihe karịrị ụdị narị abụọ, nke a na-akọwakarị dabere na ọdịdị ha n'ọbara nke ụmụ anụmanụ ndị bu ọrịa.[18] A na-ekewa ụdị ndị a dabere na ọdịdị ha na ebe obibi ha n'ime ụdị iri na anọ: [17]

  • Subgenus Asiamoeba (Telford, 1988) - anụ ndị na-akpụ akpụ
  • Subgenus Bennettinia (Valkiunas, 1997) - nnụnụ
  • Subgenus Carinamoeba (Garnham, 1966) - anụ ndị na-akpụ akpụ
  • Subgenus Giovannolaia (Corradetti, et al. 1963) - nnụnụ
  • Subgenus Haemamoeba (Corradetti, et al. 1963) - nnụnụ
  • Subgenus Huffia (Corradetti, et al. 1963) - nnụnụ
  • Subgenus Lacertamoeba (Telford, 1988) - anụ ndị na-akpụ akpụ
  • Subgenus Laverania (Bray, 1958) - nnukwu enwe, ụmụ mmadụ
  • Subgenus Novyella (Corradetti, et al. 1963) - nnụnụ
  • Subgenus Ophidiella (Telford, 1988) - anụ ndị na-akpụ akpụ
  • Subgenus Paraplasmodium (Telford, 1988) - anụ ndị na-akpụ akpụ
  • Subgenus Plasmodium (Bray, 1955) - enwe na apụl
  • Subgenus Sauramoeba (Garnham, 1966) - anụ ndị na-akpụ akpụ
  • Subgenus Vinckeia (Garnham, 1964) - ụmụ anụmanụ na-enye nwa ara inc. primates

A na-ekewa ụdị anụmanụ ndị na-ebute enwe na enwe, ewezuga P. falciparum na P. reichenowi (ndị mejupụtara subgenus Laverania) na subgenus Plasmodium. A na-ekewa nje ndị na-ebute anụmanụ ndị ọzọ, gụnyere ụfọdụ primates (lemurs na ndị ọzọ) na subgenus Vinckeia. Subgenesia ise dị na Bennettinia, Giovannolaia, Haemamoeba, Huffia, na Novyella nwere ụdị malaria avian a ma ama.[19] Mkpụrụ ndụ ndị ọzọ fọdụrụ: Asiamoeba, Carinamoeba, Lacertamoeba, Ophidiella, Paraplasmodium, na Sauramoeba nwere ụdị nje dị iche iche a na-ahụ na-ebute ọrịa na-akpụ akpụ.[20]

Ọdịdị

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Nnyocha ndị e mere n'oge na-adịbeghị anya gbasara ụdị Plasmodium site na iji usoro molekul egosila na mgbanwe nke otu ahụ esoghị usoro nhazi nke ọma.[2] Ọtụtụ ụdị Plasmodium ndị yiri ibe ha n'ụdị ọdịdị ma ọ bụ ndị na-ebute otu ndị ọbịa ahụ na-aghọ ndị nwere njikọ dị anya.[21] N'afọ 1990, ọtụtụ nnyocha chọrọ inyocha mmekọrịta evolushọn nke ụdị Plasmodium site na iji ribosomal RNA na mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa protein elu sitere na ụdị dị iche iche, na-achọpụta na nje mmadụ P. falciparum nwere njikọ chiri anya na nje avian karịa nje ndị ọzọ nke primates.[17] Agbanyeghị, nnyocha ndị e mere n'oge gara aga, iji chọpụta ụdị Plasmodium ndị ọzọ, chọpụtara na nje ndị a na-enweta site na anụmanụ na-etolite klade yana ụdị Hepatocystis, ebe nje ndị a na-enweta site na nnụnụ ma ọ bụ ngwere yiri ka ha na-etolite klade dị iche na mmekọrịta evolushọn na-esoghị n'okpuru ụdị mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa:[17][22]Atụmatụ maka mgbe usoro Plasmodium dị iche iche kewara ekewa dị iche iche. Atụmatụ maka nhazi nke usoro Haemosporida dị site na ihe dị ka nde iri na isii na puku narị abụọ ruo nde otu narị gara aga.[17] Enwere mmasị pụrụ iche n'ịkọwa ọdịiche nke nje mmadụ P. falciparum site na agbụrụ Plasmodium ndị ọzọ n'ihi mkpa ọgwụ ya. Maka nke a, ụbọchị ndị e mere atụmatụ na-adị site na Narị puku na puku iri ruo Nde abụọ na narị puku ise afọ gara aga.[17]

Nbudata

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A na-ekesa ụdị Plasmodium n'ụwa niile. Ụdị Plasmodium niile bụ nje ndị na-efe efe ma ga-agafe n'etiti onye na-efe efe na onye na-efe efe iji mezue usoro ndụ ha. Ụdị Plasmodium dị iche iche na-egosipụta ụdị dị iche iche nke ndị na-efe efe, ụfọdụ ụdị nwere naanị otu ụdị vertebrate na otu ụdị ụmụ ahụhụ, ebe ụdị ndị ọzọ nwere ike ibute ọtụtụ ụdị vertebrate na/ma ọ bụ ụmụ ahụhụ.

Anụ ndị nwere azụ

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Mmetụta nke ụdị Plasmodium site na mba ebe o si maka ndị a na-ebubata na mba ndị na-abụghị ndị a na ya [23]

A kọwawo nje ndị na-akpata ọrịa Plasmodium n'ọtụtụ ebe dị iche iche nke anụ ụlọ, gụnyere anụ na-akpụ akpụ, nnụnụ, na anụmanụ.[24] Ọ bụ ezie na ọtụtụ ụdị nwere ike ibute ọrịa karịa otu onye na-elekọta anụ ụlọ, ha na-abụkarị kpọmkwem maka otu n'ime klas ndị a (dịka nnụnụ). [24]

Ụmụ mmadụ na-ebute ọrịa site na [./List_of_<i id= Plasmodium_species_infecting_primates#Species_infecting_humans" id="mwAak" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="List of Plasmodium species infecting primates">ụdị ise] nke Plasmodium, na ọtụtụ n'ime ọrịa siri ike na ọnwụ nke Plasmodium falciparum kpatara.[25] Ụdị ụfọdụ na-emetụta ụmụ mmadụ nwekwara ike ibute ụmụ anụmanụ ndị ọzọ, na zoonoses nke ụdị ụfọdụ (dịka nje P. knowlesi) site na ụmụ anụmanụ ọzọ na ụmụ mmadụ bụ ihe a na-ahụkarị.[25] Ndị na-abụghị mmadụ nwekwara ụdị Plasmodium dịgasị iche iche nke na-adịghị ebute ụmụ mmadụ. Ụfọdụ n'ime ndị a nwere ike ịkpata ọrịa siri ike na primates, ebe ndị ọzọ nwere ike ịnọgide na onye nwe ya ruo ogologo oge n'ebughị ọrịa.[26] Ọtụtụ anụmanụ ndị ọzọ na-ebukwa ụdị Plasmodium, dịka ụdị oke, ungulates, na usu. Ọzọkwa, ụfọdụ ụdị Plasmodium nwere ike ibute ọrịa siri ike n'ụfọdụ n'ime ndị a na-enwe ha, ebe ọtụtụ yiri ka ha anaghị eme otú ahụ.[27]

Ihe karịrị ụdị otu narị na ịrị ịse nke <i id="mwAck">Plasmodium</i> na-emetụta ụdị nnụnụ dịgasị iche iche. N'ozuzu, ụdị ọ bụla nke Plasmodium na-ebute otu ụdị nnụnụ ole na ole.[28] Plasmodium parasites nke na-ebute nnụnụ na-anọgide na onye nwe ya ruo ọtụtụ afọ ma ọ bụ maka oge ndụ nke onye nwe ya, ọ bụ ezie na n'ọnọdụ ụfọdụ, ọrịa Plasmodium nwere ike ịkpata ọrịa siri ike na ọnwụ ngwa ngwa.[29][30] N'adịghị ka ụdị Plasmodium na-ebute ụmụ anụmanụ, nnụnụ ndị na-ebufe ọrịa na-ekesa n'ụwa niile.[28]

Ụdị sitere na ọtụtụ subgenera nke ọrịa Plasmodium na-emetụta Anụ ndị na-akpụ akpụ dị iche iche. A kọwawo nje Plasmodium n'ọtụtụ Ezinụlọ ezé ma, dị ka nje nnụnụ, na-agbasa n'ụwa niile.[31] N'adịghị ka ụdị Plasmodium ndị na-ebute nje na anụmanụ, a na-ekesa nnụnụ ndị na-ebute nje ahụ gburugburu ụwa.[31]

E mepụtara ọtụtụ ọgwụ kemgbe ọtụtụ afọ iji chịkwaa ọrịa Plasmodium na ndị nwere ọkpụkpụ azụ, ọkachasị n'ime ụmụ mmadụ. A na-eji Quinine eme ihe dị ka ihe na-egbochi ịba site na narị afọ nke iri na asaa ruo mgbe mmegide zuru oke pụtara na mmalite narị afọ nke abụọ.[32] Ịkwụsị quinine kpaliri mmepe nke ọtụtụ ọgwụ mgbochi ịba site na narị afọ nke ịrị abụọ gụnyere chloroquine, proguanil, atovaquone, sulfadoxine / pyrimethamine, mefloquine, na artemisinin.[32] N'ọnọdụ niile, nje ndị na-eguzogide ọgwụ a nyere apụtala n'ime iri afọ ole na ole nke itinye ọgwụ ahụ.[32] Iji lụso nke a ọgụ, a na-ejikarị ọgwụ mgbochi ịba eme ihe na njikọta, yana ọgwụgwọ njikọta artemisinin ugbu a bụ ọkọlọtọ ọla edo maka ọgwụgwọ.[33] N'ozuzu, ọgwụ mgbochi ịba na-elekwasị anya na ọkwa ndụ nke nje Plasmodium nke bi n'ime mkpụrụ ndụ ọbara uhie, dịka ndị a bụ ọkwa ndị na-akpata ọrịa.[34] [35]

Ụmụ ahụhụ

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Anopheles stephensi bụ otu n'ime ụmụ ahụhụ na-eri ọbara nke ụdị Plasmodium nwere ike ibute ọrịa.

Na mgbakwunye na onye nwere azụ̀, ụdị ọrịa Plasmodium niile na-ebutekwa nje ndị na-aṅụ ọbara, nke na-abụkarị anwụnta (ọ bụ ezie na ụfọdụ nje ndị na-ebute ọrịa na-efe efe na-esi n'ájá ájá ebufe ). Anwụnta nke ụdị Culex, Anopheles, Culiseta, Mansonia na Aedes na-arụ ọrụ dị ka ebe obibi ụmụ ahụhụ maka ụdị ọrịa Plasmodium dị iche iche. Ndị kacha mma e nyochachara gbasara ha bụ anwụnta Anopheles nke nwere nje Plasmodium nke ịba mmadụ, yana anwụnta Culex nke nwere ụdị ọrịa Plasmodium nke na-akpata ịba n'ime nnụnụ. Naanị anwụnta nwanyị ka a na-ebute site na ọrịa Plasmodium, ebe ọ bụ na ọ bụ naanị ọbara nke ndị nwere azụ̀ dị n'ime ha ka ha na-eri. [36] Ụdị dị iche iche na-emetụta ndị na-elekọta ha n'ụzọ dị iche iche. Mgbe ụfọdụ, ụmụ ahụhụ ndị nwere ọrịa Plasmodium na-ebelata ndụ ha ma belata ikike ha ịmụ ụmụ. [37] Ọzọkwa, ụfọdụ ụdị ọrịa Plasmodium yiri ka ha na-eme ka ụmụ ahụhụ na-ahọrọ ịta ndị nwere azụ̀ vertebrate ọrịa karịa ndị na-enweghị ọrịa. [37] [38] [39]

Akụkọ ihe mere eme

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Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran bu ụzọ kọwaa nje na ọbara nke ndị ọrịa ịba n'afọ 1880. [40] Ọ kpọrọ nje ahụ Oscillaria malariae . [40] N'afọ 1885, ndị na-ahụ maka ụmụ anụmanụ bụ Ettore Marchiafva na Angelo Celli nyochaghachiri nje ahụ ma kpọọ ya onye otu ụdị ọhụrụ, ọrịa Plasmodium, nke akpọrọ aha ya maka ọdịdị ya na mkpụrụ ndụ multinyucleate nke slime molds nke otu aha ahụ.[41][ihe odide 1] Eziokwu ahụ bụ na ọtụtụ ụdị nwere ike itinye aka n'ịkpata ụdị ịba dị iche iche bụ nke mbụ Camillo Golgi chọpụtara n'afọ 1886. [40] N'afọ 1897, William Welch chọpụtara ma kpọọ ya ọrịa Plasmodium falciparum. N'oge na-adịghị anya mgbe nke ahụ gasịrị, Giovanni Batista Grassi na Raimondo Filetti kpọrọ nje ndị na-akpata ụdị ịba abụọ dị iche iche nke mmadụ Plasmodium vivax na Plasmodium malariae . [40]Nke a sochiri site na mmata nke ụdị abụọ ọzọ nke ọrịa Plasmodium nke na-emetụta ụmụ mmadụ: Plasmodium oval (1922) na Plasmodium knowlesi (nke a chọpụtara na ogologo ọdụ n'afọ 1931; na ụmụ mmadụ n'afọ 1965). [40] Ronald Ross kọwara onyinye nke ụmụ ahụhụ na ndụ Plasmodium n'afọ 1897 na Giovanni Batista Grassi, Amico Bignami na Giuseppe Bastianelli n'afọ 1899.[40]

N'afọ 1966, Cyril Garnham tụrụ aro ka a kewaa ọrịa Plasmodium n'ime ụdị itoolu dabere na njirimara na ọdịdị nje.[18] Nke a gụnyere subgenera anọ nke A. Corradetti chepụtara na mbụ maka ụdị Plasmodium na-ebute ọrịa nnụnụ n'afọ 1963.[42][19] Sam R. Telford gbasaa atụmatụ a n'afọ 1988 mgbe ọ gbanwere nje Plasmodium nke na-emetụta anụ ndị na-akpụ akpụ, na-agbakwunye subgenera ise. [18][20] N'afọ 1997, G. Valkiunas weghachiri ụdị Plasmodium na-ebute ọrịa nnụnụ site na ịgbakwunye subgenus nke ise: Bennettinia . [19][43]

Hụkwa

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  • Haematozoa
  • Ndepụta nke ụdị Plasmodium
  • Ngwá ọrụ Plasmodium
  • Plasmodium RUF6 RNA

Ihe edeturu

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

 Templeeti:Malaria

Edensibia

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Ịgụ ihe ọzọ

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Ịmata

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Ihe ndị dị ndụ

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  • Baldacci, P. (October 2004). "The elusive malaria sporozoite in the mammalian host". Mol. Microbiol. 54 (2): 298–306. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2958.2004.04275.x. PMID 15469504.
  • Bledsoe, G. H. (December 2005). "Malaria primer for clinicians in the United States" (PDF). South. Med. J. 98 (12): 1197–204, quiz 1205, 1230. doi:10.1097/01.smj.0000189904.50838.eb. PMID 16440920. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-03-18. Retrieved 2026-08-13.
  • Shortt, H. E. (1951). "Life-cycle of the mammalian malaria parasite". Br. Med. Bull. 8 (1): 7–9. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.bmb.a074057. PMID 14944807.

Akụkọ ihe mere eme

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Njikọ mpụga

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 Templeeti:Malaria

 

  1. ↑ "CDC – Malaria Parasites – About". CDC: Malaria. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 28 December 2015.
  2. 1 2 Zilversmit, M. "Plasmodium". Tree of Life Web Project. Retrieved 1 June 2016.
  3. ↑ Obado, Samson O (2016). "The nuclear envelope and gene organization in parasitic protozoa: Specializations associated with disease". Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology. 209 (1–2): 104–113. doi:10.1016/j.molbiopara.2016.07.008. PMID 27475118.
  4. 1 2 Jimenez-Ruiz, Elena (2016). "Vacuolar protein sorting mechanisms in apicomplexan parasites". Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology. 209 (1–2): 18–25. doi:10.1016/j.molbiopara.2016.01.007. PMID 26844642.
  5. ↑ Counihan, Natalie A. (2013). "Plasmodium rhoptry proteins: Why order is important". Trends in Parasitology. 29 (5): 228–36. doi:10.1016/j.pt.2013.03.003. PMID 23570755.
  6. 1 2 Kemp, Louise E. (2013). "Subversion of host cellular functions by the apicomplexan parasites" (PDF). FEMS Microbiology Reviews. 37 (4): 607–31. doi:10.1111/1574-6976.12013. PMID 23186105. Archived from the original on 2020-04-22. Retrieved 2026-08-13.
  7. 1 2 Sheiner, Lilach (2013). "The metabolic roles of the endosymbiotic organelles of Toxoplasma and Plasmodium spp". Current Opinion in Microbiology. 16 (4): 452–8. doi:10.1016/j.mib.2013.07.003. PMID 23927894.
  8. ↑ McFadden, Geoffrey Ian (2017). "The apicoplast: Now you see it, now you don't". International Journal for Parasitology. 47 (2–3): 137–144. doi:10.1016/j.ijpara.2016.08.005. PMID 27773518.
  9. ↑ Dooren, Giel (June 26, 2013). "The Algal Past and Parasite Present of the Apicoplast". Annual Review of Microbiology. 67: 271–289. doi:10.1146/annurev-micro-092412-155741. PMID 23808340.
  10. 1 2 Vernick, K.D. (2005). "Molecular Genetics of Mosquito Resistance to Malaria Parasites". In Sullivan, D (ed.). Malaria: Drugs, Disease, and Post-genomic Biology. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-29088-9.
  11. 1 2 3 "CDC – Malaria Parasites – Biology". CDC: Malaria. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 28 December 2015.
  12. ↑ Markus, M. B. (2011). "Malaria: Origin of the Term 'Hypnozoite'". Journal of the History of Biology. 44 (4): 781–786. doi:10.1007/s10739-010-9239-3. PMID 20665090.
  13. ↑ Vaughan, Ashley M. (2017). "Malaria Parasite Liver Infection and Exoerythrocytic Biology". Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine. 7 (6). doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a025486. PMID 28242785.
  14. ↑ Markus, M. B. (2022). "Theoretical origin of genetically homologous Plasmodium vivax malarial recurrences". Southern African Journal of Infectious Diseases. 37 (1). doi:10.4102/sajid.v37i1.369. PMID 35399558.
  15. ↑ Morrison, David A. (2009). "Evolution of the Apicomplexa: Where are we now?". Trends in Parasitology. 25 (8): 375–82. doi:10.1016/j.pt.2009.05.010. PMID 19635681.
  16. ↑ Votypka J. "Haemospororida Danielewski 1885". Tree of Life. Retrieved 1 May 2018.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Perkins, S. L. (2014). "Malaria's Many Mates: Past, Present, and Future of the Systematics of the Order Haemosporida". Journal of Parasitology. 100 (1): 11–25. doi:10.1645/13-362.1. PMID 24059436.
  18. 1 2 3 Martinsen, E. S. (2013). "The Diversity of Plasmodium and other Haemosporidians: The Intersection of Taxonomy, Phylogenetics, and Genomics". In Carlton, J.M. (ed.). Malaria Parasites: Comparative Genomics, Evolution and Molecular Biology. Caister Academic Press. pp. 1–15. ISBN 978-1-908230-07-2.
  19. 1 2 3 Valkiunas, Gediminas (2004). "Brief Historical Summary". Avian Malaria Parasites and Other Haemosporidia. CRC Press. pp. 9–15. ISBN 978-0-415-30097-1.
  20. 1 2 Telford S (1988). "A contribution to the systematics of the reptilian malaria parasites, family Plasmodiidae (Apicomplexa: Haemosporina)". Bulletin of the Florida State Museum Biological Sciences. 34 (2): 65–96. Archived from the original on 2018-09-26. Retrieved 2014-03-25.
  21. ↑ Rich, S. (2003). Progress in Malaria Research: the Case for Phylogenetics. Advances in Parasitology. pp. 255–80. doi:10.1016/S0065-308X(03)54005-2. ISBN 978-0-12-031754-7.
  22. ↑ "A three-genome phylogeny of malaria parasites (Plasmodium and closely related genera): Evolution of life-history traits and host switches". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 47 (1): 261–273. April 2008. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2007.11.012. PMID 18248741.
  23. ↑ Tatem AJ (2017). "The geography of imported malaria to non-endemic countries: a meta-analysis of nationally reported statistics". Lancet Infect Dis. 17 (1): 98–107. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(16)30326-7. PMID 27777030.
  24. 1 2 Manguin, S. (2008). Biodiversity of Malaria in the world. John Libbey. pp. 13–15. ISBN 978-2-7420-0616-8. Retrieved 15 March 2018.
  25. 1 2 Scully, Erik J. (2017). "Molecular interactions governing host-specificity of blood stage malaria parasites". Current Opinion in Microbiology. 40: 21–31. doi:10.1016/j.mib.2017.10.006. PMID 29096194.
  26. ↑ Nunn, C. (2006). Infectious Diseases in Primates: Behavior, Ecology and Evolution (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 253–254. ISBN 978-0-19-856584-0. Retrieved 16 March 2018.
  27. ↑ "The rediscovery of malaria parasites of ungulates". Parasitology. 143 (12): 1501–1508. 2016. doi:10.1017/S0031182016001141. PMID 27444556.
  28. 1 2 Valkiunas, Gediminas (2004). "Specificity and general Principles of Species Identification". Avian Malaria Parasites and Other Haemosporidia. CRC Press. pp. 67–81. ISBN 978-0-415-30097-1.
  29. ↑ Valkiunas, Gediminas (2004). "General Section - Life Cycle and Morphology of Plasmodiidae Species". Avian Malaria Parasites and Other Haemosporidia. CRC Press. pp. 27–35. ISBN 978-0-415-30097-1.
  30. ↑ Valkiunas, Gediminas (2004). "Pathogenicity". Avian Malaria Parasites and Other Haemosporidia. CRC Press. pp. 83–111. ISBN 978-0-415-30097-1.
  31. 1 2 Zug, G. R., ed. (2012). Herpetology: An Introductory Biology of Amphibians and Reptiles. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-782620-2. Retrieved 16 March 2018.
  32. 1 2 3 Blasco, Benjamin (2017). "Antimalarial drug resistance: Linking Plasmodium falciparum parasite biology to the clinic". Nature Medicine. 23 (8): 917–928. doi:10.1038/nm.4381. PMID 28777791.
  33. ↑ Cowman, Alan F (2016). "Malaria: Biology and Disease". Cell. 167 (3): 610–624. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2016.07.055. PMID 27768886.
  34. ↑ Haldar, Kasturi (2018). "Drug resistance in Plasmodium". Nature Reviews Microbiology. 16 (3): 156–170. doi:10.1038/nrmicro.2017.161. PMID 29355852.
  35. ↑ Poonam (2018). "Multistage inhibitors of the malaria parasite: Emerging hope for chemoprotection and malaria eradication". Medicinal Research Reviews. 38 (5): 1511–1535. doi:10.1002/med.21486. PMID 29372568.
  36. ↑ Crompton, Peter D. (2014). "Malaria Immunity in Man and Mosquito: Insights into Unsolved Mysteries of a Deadly Infectious Disease". Annual Review of Immunology. 32 (1): 157–187. doi:10.1146/annurev-immunol-032713-120220. PMID 24655294.
  37. 1 2 Busula, Annette O. (2017). "Mechanisms of Plasmodium -Enhanced Attraction of Mosquito Vectors". Trends in Parasitology. 33 (12): 961–973. doi:10.1016/j.pt.2017.08.010. PMID 28942108.
  38. ↑ Stanczyk, Nina M. (2017). "Effects of malaria infection on mosquito olfaction and behavior: Extrapolating data to the field". Current Opinion in Insect Science. 20: 7–12. doi:10.1016/j.cois.2017.02.002. PMID 28602239.
  39. ↑ Mitchell, Sara N. (2017). "Anopheline Reproductive Biology: Impacts on Vectorial Capacity and Potential Avenues for Malaria Control". Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine. 7 (12). doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a025593. PMID 28389513.
  40. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "The History of Malaria, an Ancient Disease". U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 31 May 2016.
  41. ↑ McFadden, G. I. (2012). "Plasmodia – don't". Trends Parasitol. 28 (8). doi:10.1016/j.pt.2012.05.006. PMID 22738856.
  42. ↑ Corradetti A. (1963). "New classification of the avian malaria parasites". Parassitologia. 5: 1–4.
  43. ↑ Valkiunas, G. (1997). "Bird Haemosporidia". Acta Zoologica Lituanica. 3–5: 1–607. ISSN 1392-1657.
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