Third-wave feminism
Ugboro nke anọ nke ụmụ nwanyị bụ Òtù ụmụ nwanyị nke malitere na mbido afọ 1990; [2] ọ bụ ihe a ma ama n'ime iri afọ tupu oge nke anọ. [2] N'ịbụ ndị dabeere na ọganihu nke ikike obodo nke oge nke abụọ, ndị Gen X nke atọ na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị a mụrụ n'afọ ndị 1960 na 1970 nabatara ọdịiche ịdị iche iche na onye ọ bụla n'ime ụmụ nwanyị, ma chọọ ịkọwapụta ihe ọ pụtara ịbụ onye na-ahụ n'anya ụmụ nwanyị.[3] Ugboro nke atọ hụrụ mpụta nke usoro na echiche ọhụrụ nke ụmụ nwanyị, dị ka intersectionality, mmekọahụ, ecofeminism, transfeminism, na Postmodern femism. Dị ka ọkà mmụta ụmụ nwanyị Elizabeth Evans si kwuo, "mgbagwoju anya gbara ihe mejupụtara ụmụ nwanyị nke atọ gburugburu bụ n'ụzọ ụfọdụ ihe na-akọwa ya".[7]
A na-achọpụta ọganihu nke atọ site na akaebe telivishọn Anita Hill na 1991 na Kọmitii Ikpe nke Senate nke nwoke niile na-acha ọcha na onye ọka ikpe Clarence Thomas wakporo ya. A na-ekwu na ọ bụ Rebecca Walker dere okwu nke atọ, onye zaghachiri nhọpụta Thomas na Ụlọikpe Kasị Elu site na edemede na magazin Ms, "Becoming the Third Wave" (1992).[1] O dere, sị: Walker gbalịrị igosi na ọganihu nke atọ nke ụmụ nwanyị abụghị naanị mmeghachi omume kama ọ bụ mmegharị n'onwe ya n'ihi na ihe gbasara ụmụ nwanyị nwere ọrụ ka ukwuu n'ihu. Okwu intersectionality iji kọwaa echiche ahụ na ụmụ nwanyị na-enwe "ọkwa nke mmegbu" nke Kimberlé Crenshaw webatara, dịka ọmụmaatụ, site na okike, agbụrụ, na klas na 1989, ọ bụkwa n'oge nke atọ ka echiche ahụ nwere ọganihu.[10]
Na mgbakwunye, a na-achọpụta ụmụ nwanyị nke atọ na mpụta nke riot grrrl feminist punk subculture na Olympia, Washington, na mbido afọ 1990. [a] Ka ndị na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị bịara n'ịntanetị na ngwụcha afọ 1990 na mmalite afọ 2000 wee rute ndị na-ege ntị zuru ụwa ọnụ na blọọgụ na e-zines, ha gbasaa ebumnuche ha, na-elekwasị anya n'iwepụ echiche nwoke na nwanyị na ịgbasawanye ụmụ nwanyị iji tinye ụmụ nwanyị nwere ọdịbendị na agbụrụ dị iche iche.[4]
Ihe ndị mere n'oge gara aga
[dezie | dezie ebe o si]Ikike na mmemme ụmụ nwanyị nwetara na oge nke abụọ bụ ntọala maka oge nke atọ. Mmeri ndị a gụnyere Mbụ IX (nnweta nha anya inweta agụmakwụkwọ), arụmụka ọha na eze banyere mmetọ na idina ụmụ nwanyị n'ike, ịnweta mgbochi afọ ime na ọrụ ọmụmụ ndị ọzọ (gụnyere iwu ime ime), imepụta na mmanye nke iwu iyi egwu mmekọahụ n'ebe ọrụ maka ụmụ nwanyị, imepụta ebe nchekwa ime ihe ike n'ụlọ maka ụmụ nwanyị na ụmụaka, ọrụ nlekọta ụmụaka, ego agụmakwụkwọ maka ụmụ agbọghọ, na mmemme mmụta ụmụ nwanyị.
Ndị inyom dị ka Gloria E. Anzaldúa, mgbịrịgba nko, Cherríe Moraga, Audre Lorde, Maxine Hong Kingston, Leslie Marmon Silko, na ndị otu Combahee River Collective chọrọ imeghe ohere na echiche nwanyị iji lebara agbụrụ anya. Cherríe Moraga na Gloria E. Anzaldúa bipụtara akwụkwọ a na-akpọ This Bridge Called My Back (1981), nke, tinyere All Women Are White, All the Blacks Are Men, But Some of Our Are Brave (1982), nke Akasha (Gloria T.) Hull deziri, Patricia Bell-Scott, na Barbara Smith, na-arụ ụka na nsogbu nke abụọ nke ndị inyom na-acha ọcha. Usoro a mesiri njikọ dị n'etiti agbụrụ na okike wee bụrụ onye a ma ama. Otú ọ dị, ikwe ka ụmụ nwanyị ọgbọ nke atọ nabata ụkpụrụ nke intersectionality nwere ike ihichapụ akụkọ nke ụmụ nwanyị ọgbọ nke abụọ bụ ndị rụworo ọrụ itinye ya.
Na ngwụcha afọ 1970 na mmalite afọ 1980, Agha mmekọahụ nke ụmụ nwanyị bilitere dị ka mmeghachi omume megide ụmụ nwanyị siri ike nke oge nke abụọ na echiche ya banyere mmekọahụ, na-emegide echiche nke "mmekọahụ", ma na-akpọsa oge nke atọ.
Ihe mmepe ọzọ dị mkpa maka oge nke atọ bụ mbipụta na 1990 nke Nsogbu Mmekọ nwoke na nwanyị: Feminism na Subversion of Identity site n'aka Judith Butler, bụ nke ghọrọ otu n'ime ọrụ kachasị mkpa nke echiche nwanyị nke oge a. N'ime ya, Butler rụrụ ụka megide echiche homogenizing nke "ụmụ nwanyị", nke nwere mmetụta na-adịghị mma ọ bụghị nanị na ụwa ọha mmadụ kamakwa na ụmụ nwanyị n'onwe ha. Nke a bụ ikpe ọ bụghị naanị maka ụmụ nwanyị agbụrụ ma ọ bụ ndị na-arụ ọrụ, kamakwa maka ndị nwoke, ụmụ nwanyị, ma ọ bụ ụmụ nwanyị na-abụghị nwoke na nwanyị. Ha kọwap ụtara echiche ha banyere nwoke na nwanyị dị ka arụmọrụ, nke na-arụ ụka na okike na-arụ ọrụ site na mmanye nke usoro okwu ọnụ na nke na-abụghị nke okwu na-emepụta "echiche ụgha" nke nkwupụta nwoke na nwanyị na njirimara, nke na-agaghị enwe ihe ọ bụla bara uru. N'ikpeazụ, Butler mepụtara echiche ahụ na ọ dịghị mmekọahụ "eke", ma na ihe anyị na-akpọ ya bụ omenala mgbe nile, ya mere enweghị ike ikewapụ ya na okike.Echiche ndị a bụ ntọala maka ngalaba echiche nwoke na nwanyị, ma keere òkè dị ukwuu na mmepe echiche na omume ụmụ nwanyị nke ọgbọ nke atọ.
Mmetụta Ụwa Nile
[dezie | dezie ebe o si]Ihe iyi egwu atọ nke ụmụ nwanyị agbasawo karịa US na ndị na-eme ihe ike na mmegharị ụmụ nwanyị gburugburu ụwa. Na Europe, ndị na-eto eto feminists ejiriwo echiche nke onye ọ bụla na nke jikọrọ ọnụ iji dozie ahaghị nhata nwoke na nwanyị, dị ka ịkpa ókè n'ọrụ na ikike ịmụ nwa.[1] Na Latin America, a na-ejikọta echiche ụmụ nwanyị ọhụrụ na mkpọsa megide ime ihe ike ụmụ nwoke megide ụmụ nwanyị ma nyere aka kpalie arụmụka ọha na eze gbasara ike ụmụ nwanyị na ikpe ziri ezi. Ntugharị ụmụ nwanyị na South Asia anabatala akụkụ nke atọ site n'ịmepụta oghere dijitalụ maka ụmụ nwanyị na-ajụ ọrụ okike ọdịnala na ịkwado maka mgbanwe iwu na omenala. Ndị na-eme ngagharị iwe n'Africa na-emesi ike dị iche iche nke mmegharị ahụ na ikike onwe onye iji mee mgbanwe maka agụmakwụkwọ ụmụ agbọghọ na idu ndú, yana itinye aka na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị.
Anita Hill
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N'afọ 1991, Anita Hill, mgbe a jụrụ ya ajụjụ, boro Clarence Thomas, bụ́ onye America na-ekpe ikpe ziri ezi họpụtara n'Ụlọikpe Kasị Elu nke United States, ebubo iyi egwu mmekọahụ. Thomas gọrọ agọ ebubo ahụ, na-akpọ ha "igbu ọchụ dị elu." Mgbe ọtụtụ arụmụka gasịrị, ndị omebe iwu United States mere ntuli aka 52-48 kwadoro Thomas. Na nzaghachi, Ms. Magazine bipụtara otu akụkọ sitere na Rebecca Walker, nke isiokwu ya bụ "Ịghọ Wave nke Atọ," nke o kwuru, sị: "Abụghị m nwanyị. Abụ m nke atọ." Ọtụtụ ndị kwuru na a ga-akwado Thomas, n'agbanyeghị ebubo Hill, n'ihi atụmatụ ya ịmepụta ohere maka ndị nwere agba. Mgbe Walker jụrụ onye òtù ọlụlụ ya ma o kwuwo otu ihe ahụ, ọ jụrụ, sị: "Olee mgbe ndị ojii na-aga n'ihu ga-ebute ikike na ọdịmma m ụzọ?" Ọ chọrọ nha nha nke agbụrụ mana na-ewepụghị ụmụ nwanyị.
N'afọ 1992, nke a kpọrọ "Afọ nke Nwaanyị", ụmụ nwanyị anọ batara na Senate nke United States iji sonyere ha abụọ nọ ebe ahụ. N'afọ sochirinụ, nwanyị ọzọ, Kay Bailey Hutchison, meriri ntuli aka pụrụ iche, na-eweta ọnụ ọgụgụ ahụ na asaa. Afọ 1990 hụrụ nwanyị mbụ US Attorney General (Janet Reno) na Secretary of State (Madeleine Albright), yana nwanyị nke abụọ na Ụlọikpe Kasị Elu, Ruth Bader Ginsburg, na nwanyị mbụ US, Hillary Clinton, nwere ọrụ ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị, iwu na onye na-eme ihe ike.
Riot grrrl
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Mpụta nke ọgba aghara grrrl, subculture punk nke nwanyị, na mbido 1990s na Olympia, Washington, bụ akara mmalite nke feminism nke atọ. Emebere "r" nke atọ dị na grrrl iji nwetaghachi okwu nwa agbọghọ maka ụmụ nwanyị. Alison Piepmeier na-ede na riot grrrl na Sarah Dyer's Action Girl Newsletter chepụtara "ụdị, okwu okwu, na iconography maka grrrl zines" nke bịara kọwaa nwanyị nke atọ, [1] na nke lekwasịrị anya n'echiche ụmụ agbọghọ na-eto eto.[3] Dabere na hard-core punk rock, mmegharị ahụ kere zines na nka, na-ekwu maka idina n'ike, nna ochie, mmekọahụ, na ike ụmụ nwanyị, malite isiakwụkwọ, ma kwado ma hazie ụmụ nwanyị na egwu.[4] Ihe nlegharị anya nlegharị anya Bikini Kill nke afọ 2013 anakọtara jụrụ "Gịnị bụ Riot grrrl?": Riot grrrl dabeere na Nkà ihe ọmụma DIY nke ụkpụrụ punk, na-ewere nguzo na-emegide ụlọ ọrụ nke afọ ojuju na ịdabere na onwe.[5] Mmetụta ya na njirimara nwanyị zuru ụwa ọnụ na nkewa na-apụtakarị na-ejikọta ya na nke abụọ nke ụmụ nwanyị. Ndị otu jikọtara ya na mmegharị ahụ gụnyere Bratmobile, Excuse 17, Jack Off Jill, Free Kitten, Heavens to Betsy, Huggy Bear, L7, Fifth Column, na Team Dresch, na Bikini Kill. [6]
Ọdịbendị Riot grrrl nyere ndị mmadụ ohere iji mee mgbanwe na macro, meso na micro scale. Dị ka Kevin Dunn si kọwaa:
Using the do-it-yourself ethos of punk to provide resources for individual empowerment, Riot Grrrl encouraged females to engage in multiple sites of resistance. At the macro-level, Riot Grrrls resist society's dominant constructions of femininity. At the meso-level, they resist stifling gender roles in punk. At the micro-level, they challenge gender constructions in their families and among their peers.[7]
A na-ejikọta mbibi nke riot grrrl na commodification na nkwupụta ụgha nke ozi ya, ọkachasị site na mgbasa ozi mgbasa ozi.[7] N'ide akwụkwọ na magazin Billboard, Jennifer Keishin Armstrong na-ekwu, sị:El Hunt of NME states, "Riot grrrl bands in general were very focused on making space for women at gigs. They understood the importance of giving women a platform and voice to speak out against abusers. For a lot of young women and girls, who probably weren't following the Riot grrrl scene at all, The Spice Girls brought this spirit into the mainstream and made it accessible."[8]
Purpose
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O doro anya na ihe ịma aka kasịnụ maka ụmụ nwanyị nke atọ bụ na a na-ewere mmeri nke ụmụ nwanyị nke abụọ, na mkpa ụmụ nwanyị aghọtaghị. Baumgardner na Richards (2000) dere, sị: "[F] ma ọ bụ onye ọ bụla amụrụ mgbe mmalite afọ 1960 gasịrị, a na-ewere ọnụnọ nke ụmụ nwanyị na ndụ anyị dị ka ihe efu. Maka ọgbọ anyị, ụmụ nwanyị dị ka fluoride. Anyị anaghị ahụ na anyị nwere ya - ọ dị naanị na mmiri. "
N'ụzọ bụ isi, a na-ekwu na e nwetala nha anya nwoke na nwanyị, site na ebili mmiri abụọ mbụ, na mbọ ndị ọzọ iji kwalite ikike ụmụ nwanyị enweghị isi na enweghị isi, ma ọ bụ ikekwe na-efegharị pendulum nke ukwuu maka ọdịmma ụmụ nwanyị. Okwu a egosipụtala onwe ya na arụmụka kpụ ọkụ n'ọnụ banyere ma omume nkwenye na-emepụta nha anya nwoke na nwanyị ma ọ bụ na-ata ndị ọcha ahụhụ, bụ ndị nọ n'etiti nhụjuanya maka akụkọ ihe mere eme ha ketara. Ya mere, ndị inyom nke atọ na-elekwasị anya na mmepe nke akọ na uche - "ikike nke ndị mmadụ imeghe uche ha n'eziokwu na nchịkwa nwoke na-emetụta ndị inyom nke ọgbọ anyị, nke bụ ihe dị anyị mkpa."
Ndị na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị nke atọ na-etinye aka na "micro-politics", ma na-ama ụkpụrụ nke abụọ aka maka ihe dị mma maka ụmụ nwanyị. [9] [10][38] Ndị na-akwado ụmụ nwanyị nke atọ kwuru na ọ na-enye ụmụ nwanyị ohere ịkọwa ụmụ nwanyị maka onwe ha. N'ịkọwa nke atọ nke ụmụ nwanyị na Manifesta: Young Women, Feminism And The Future (2000), Jennifer Baumgardner na Amy Richards tụrụ aro na ụmụ nwanyị nwere ike ịgbanwe na ọgbọ ọ bụla na onye ọ bụla:
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Ndị na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị nke atọ jiri akụkọ onwe onye dị ka ụdị echiche ụmụ nwanyị. Ikwu ahụmahụ onwe onye nyere ụmụ nwanyị ohere ịmata na ha anọghị naanị ha na mmegbu na ịkpa ókè ha chere ihu. Iji akụkọ ndị a nwere uru n'ihi na ọ na-edekọ nkọwa onwe onye nke nwere ike ọ gaghị adị na ederede akụkọ ihe mere eme ọdịnala.[11]
Echiche nke atọ lekwasịrị anya na nkọwa post-structuralist nke okike na mmekọahụ. [12] Ndị na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị na-ahụ ihe abụọ dị ka nwoke na nwanyị dị ka ihe aka mere iji nọgide na-enwe ike nke otu na-achịkwa.[13] Joan W. Scott dere na 1998 na "ndị poststructuralists na-ekwusi ike na okwu na ederede enweghị ihe ọ bụla ma ọ bụ ihe ọ bụla, na enweghị mmekọrịta doro anya ma ọ bụ nke doro anya n'etiti ha na ma ọ bụ echiche ma ọ bụ Ihe, enweghị nkwekọrịta ma ọ bụ nkwekọrịta n'etiti asụsụ na ụwa". [14] [b]
Mmekọrịta ya na nke abụọ
[dezie | dezie ebe o si]E boro ndị na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị ebubo na ha na-achị na na ha na-eleghara otu dị ka ụmụ nwanyị nwere agba; kama, ha lekwasịrị anya na ndị ọcha, ndị nọ n'etiti, ụmụ nwanyị cisgender. Ndị na-ahụ maka nwanyị nke ọgbọ nke atọ jụrụ nkwenkwe nke ndị bu ha ụzọ wee malite itinye echiche nke nwanyị n'ọtụtụ ụmụ nwanyị, ndị na-adịghị etinye n'ọrụ ụmụ nwanyị.
Amy Richards kọwara ọdịbendị ụmụ nwanyị maka oge nke atọ dị ka "oge nke atọ n'ihi na ọ bụ ngosipụta nke itolite na ụmụ nwanyị".[5] Ndị na-akwado ụmụ nwanyị nke abụọ toro ebe ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị jikọtara n'ime ọdịbendị, dị ka "Kennedy, Agha Vietnam, ikike obodo, na ikike ụmụ nwanyị". N'ụzọ dị iche, ọganihu nke atọ sitere na omenala nke "punk-rock, hip-hop, 'zines, ngwaahịa, ịzụ ahịa na Ịntanetị". N'otu edemede akpọrọ "Generations, Academic Feminists in dialogue" Diane Elam dere, sị:Rebecca Walker, na To Be Real: Telling the Truth and Changing the Face of Feminism (1995), dere banyere egwu ya maka ịjụ site n'aka nne ya (Alice Walker) na nne ya (Gloria Steinem) maka ịma echiche ha aka:
Nsogbu
[dezie | dezie ebe o si]Ime ihe ike megide ụmụ nwanyị
[dezie | dezie ebe o si]
Violence against women, including rape, domestic violence, and sexual harassment, became a central issue. Organizations such as V-Day formed with the goal of ending gender violence, and artistic expressions, such as The Vagina Monologues, generated awareness. Third-wave feminists wanted to transform traditional notions of sexuality and embrace "an exploration of women's feelings about sexuality that included vagina-centred topics as diverse as orgasm, birth, and rape".
Ikike ịmụ nwa
[dezie | dezie ebe o si]Otu n'ime ebumnobi bụ isi nke otu ụmụ nwanyị nke atọ bụ igosi na ịnweta mgbochi afọ ime na ite ime bụ ikike ịmụ nwa nke ụmụ nwanyị. Dị ka Baumgardner na Richards si kwuo, "Ebumnobi ụmụ nwanyị abụghị ịchịkwa ọmụmụ nwanyị ọ bụla, kama ime ka nwanyị ọ bụla nwee onwe ya ịchịkwa onwe ya." Mgbalị South Dakota 2006 iji machibido ite ime n'ọnọdụ ọ bụla, ewezuga mgbe ọ dị mkpa iji chebe ndụ nne, na votu Ụlọikpe Kasị Elu nke U.S. iji kwado mmachibido ite ime na-ahụta dị ka mmebi nke ikike ụmụ nwanyị. Mgbochi ime ime na U.S., nke ikpe Ụlọikpe Kasị Elu nke 1973 kwadoro, bụ Roe v. Wade, na-aghọwanye ihe a na-ahụkarị na steeti n'ofe mba ahụ. Ndị a gụnyere oge nchere, iwu nkwenye nne na nna, na iwu nkwenye di na nwunye.
Ndị na-asụ Bekee nọgidere na-eji okwu ndị dị ka spinster, bitch, whore, na cunt na-ezo aka na ụmụ nwanyi n'ụzọ mkparị. Inga Muscio dere, "M na-ekwu na anyị nweere onwe anyị ijide okwu a tọọrọ ma jiri ya mee ihe n'oge gara aga jupụtara na ihe mgbu, nke dị anya, na mgbapụta nke furu nnwere onwe nne nne anyị, ụmụaka, ọdịnala, mpako na ala. " [15] Iweghachi okwu ahụ bụ nwanyi bụ "All Women Are Bitches" (1994) nke otu ụmụ nwanyị niile bụ Fifth Column, na akwụkwọ Bitch: In Praise of Difficult Women (1999) nke Elizabeth Wurtzel kwadoro. [16]
Sexual liberation
[dezie | dezie ebe o si]Ndị na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị nke atọ gbasaa nkọwa nke ndị na-ahụkarị maka nnwere onwe mmekọahụ nke abụọ ka ọ bụrụ "usoro nke ịmara ụzọ ọha mmadụ si emepụta njirimara nwoke na nwanyị na mmekọahụ ma kpachara anya wuo (ma nweere onwe ya igosipụta) njirimara nwoke ma ọ bụ nwanyị". Ebe ọ bụ na usoro nke atọ nke ụmụ nwanyị dabere na nkọwa onwe onye dị iche iche iji kọwaa ụmụ nwanyị, enwere esemokwu gbara ihe nnwere onwe mmekọahụ na-agụnye n'ezie. Ọtụtụ ndị na-akwado ụmụ nwanyị nke atọ kwadoro echiche ahụ na ụmụ nwanyị kwesịrị ịnabata mmekọahụ ha dị ka ụzọ isi weghachite ike ha.[17]
Okwu ndị ọzọ
[dezie | dezie ebe o si]Ugboro atọ nke ụmụ nwanyị weere agbụrụ, ọkwá mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya, na ikike transgender [18] dị ka isi okwu.[19] Ọ na-elebakwa anya n'ihe ndị dị n'ebe ọrụ dị ka elu ụlọ iko, iwu na-ezighị ezi nke ịmụ nwa, nkwado nne na-enweghị nne site na ọdịmma na nlekọta ụmụaka, nkwanye ùgwù maka ndị nne na-arụ ọrụ, na ikike nke ndị nne na' kpebiri ịhapụ ọrụ ha iji zụlite ụmụ ha oge niile.[20][21]
Criticism
[dezie | dezie ebe o si]Otu okwu nke ndị nkatọ welitere bụ enweghị ịdị n'otu n'ihi enweghị otu ihe kpatara ụmụ nwanyị nke atọ. Ugboro nke mbụ lụrụ ọgụ ma nweta ikike ụmụ nwanyị nwere ịtụ vootu. Ugboro nke abụọ lụrụ ọgụ maka ikike ụmụ nwanyị nwere ohere nhata n'ime ndị ọrụ, yana njedebe nke ịkpa ókè nwoke na nwanyị. A na-ekwu na ebili mmiri nke atọ enweghị ihe mgbaru ọsọ dị n'otu ma na-ahụkarị ya dị ka ndọtị nke ebili mmiri.[5] Ụfọdụ na-ekwu na enwere ike ịkpọ ụzarị nke atọ "Ụdọ nke Abụọ, Akụkụ nke Abụọ" mgbe ọ bịara na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị nke ụmụ nwanyị na "naanị omenala ụmụ nwanyị na-eto eto" bụ "n'ezie ụzarị atọ". Otu arụmụka kwuru na nhazi nke ụmụ nwanyị nke atọ na onye ọ bụla gbochiri mmegharị ahụ itolite ma na-aga n'ihu na ebumnuche ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị. Kathleen P. Iannello dere, sị:
Ịjụ "iwu ebili mmiri"
[dezie | dezie ebe o si]Feminist scholars such as Shira Tarrant objected to the "wave construct" because it ignored important progress between the periods. Furthermore, if feminism is a global movement, she argued, the fact that the "first-, second-, and third waves time periods correspond most closely to American feminist developments" raises serious problems about how feminism fails to recognize the history of political issues around the world.[22] The "wave construct", critics argued, also focused on white women's suffrage and continued to marginalize the issues of women of color and lower-class women.[17]
Relationship with women of color
[dezie | dezie ebe o si]Third-wave feminists proclaim themselves as the most inclusive wave of feminism. Critics have noted that while progressive, there is still exclusion of women of color. Black feminists argue that "the women rights movements were not uniquely for the liberation of Blacks or Black Women. Rather, efforts such as women's suffrage and abolition of slavery ultimately uplifted, strengthened, and benefited White society and White women".[23]
"Nwaanyị"
[dezie | dezie ebe o si]Third-wave feminism was often associated, primarily by its critics, with the emergence of so-called "lipstick" or "girly" feminists and the rise of "raunch culture". This was because these new feminists advocated "expressions of femininity and female sexuality as a challenge to objectification". Accordingly, this included the dismissal of any restriction, whether deemed patriarchal or feminist, to define or control how women or girls should dress, act, or generally express themselves. These emerging positions stood in stark contrast with the anti-pornography strains of feminism prevalent in the 1980s. Second-wave feminism viewed pornography as encouraging violence towards women. The new feminists posited that the ability to make autonomous choices about self-expression could be an empowering act of resistance, not simply internalized oppression.
Such views were critiqued because of the subjective nature of empowerment and autonomy. Scholars were unsure whether empowerment was best measured as an "internal feeling of power and agency" or as an external "measure of power and control". Moreover they critiqued an over-investment in "a model of free will and choice" in the marketplace of identities and ideas.[70] Regardless, the "girly" feminists attempted to be open to all different selves while maintaining a dialogue about the meaning of identity and femininity in the contemporary world.
Ndị na-ahụ maka nwanyị na-efegharị efegharị nke atọ kwuru na echiche ndị a agaghị ejedebe site na akara "nwanyị" nwanyị ma ọ bụ were ya dị ka nanị ịkwado "omenala raunch". Kama, ha chọrọ isonye n'ọtụtụ ọrụ dị iche iche ụmụ nwanyị na-arụ. Ndị ọkà mmụta gbasara nwoke na nwanyị bụ Linda Duits [nl] na Liesbet van Zoonen kọwapụtara njikọ a site n'ileba anya na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị nke nhọrọ uwe ụmụ nwanyị yana otu "nhọrọ sartorial nke ụmụ agbọghọ na-arụrịta ụka" na ụmụ nwanyị siri bụrụ n'okwu ọha na eze dị ka "ọnọdụ nke ụkpụrụ dị mkpa". Ya mere, "hijab" na "uwe elu afọ", dịka nhọrọ uwe, ka amapụtara ha abụọ dị ka iwu chọrọ iwu mana n'ihi ihe dị iche iche. Ha abụọ kpatara esemokwu, ebe ha na-egosi na ha na-emegide ụdị nkwupụta onwe onye. Site na oghere nke "nwa agbọghọ" feminists, mmadụ nwere ike na-ele ha abụọ dị ka ihe atụ nke "ụlọ ọrụ ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị na iguzogide objectification". Enwere ike ịhụ "hijab" ahụ dị ka omume nke nguzogide megide ambivalence n'Ebe Ọdịda Anyanwụ n'ebe njirimara Islam nọ, na "uwe elu afọ" bụ omume nke nguzogide megide echiche dị warara nke ọha ndị nna ochie banyere mmekọahụ ụmụ nwanyị. A na-ele ha abụọ anya dị ka ụdị nkwupụta onwe onye ziri ezi.
Usoro iheomume
[dezie | dezie ebe o si]Afọ ndị 1990
[dezie | dezie ebe o si]Afọ 2000
[dezie | dezie ebe o si]| Ụbọchị | Ihe omume |
|---|---|
| 2000 | Mbipụta nke Jennifer Baumgardner na Amy Richards, Manifesta: Young Women, Feminism, and the Future [93] |
| Ọktoba 2000 | CBS kwetara ịkwụ $ 8 nde iji dozie ikpe ịkpa ókè nwoke na nwanyị n'aha ụmụ nwanyị 200.[24] |
| 2001 | Isle of Man na-agafe iwu ịkpa ókè nwoke na nwanyị mbụ ya. [25] |
| 2001 | Condoleezza Rice ghọrọ nwanyị mbụ na-enye ndụmọdụ nchekwa mba US.[25] |
| 2004 | A na-eme March for Women's Lives na Washington, D.C., iji kwado ikike ite ime, ịnweta ikike igbochi ọmụmụ, agụmakwụkwọ mmekọahụ ziri ezi na sayensị, na mgbochi na ọgwụgwọ nke ọrịa a na-ebute site na mmekọahụ, yana igosi nkwado ọha na eze maka ndị nne na ụmụaka.[26] |
| 2004 | UK na-ewebata ntuziaka Gender maka ụmụ nwanyị na-achọ ebe mgbaba. [25] |
| 2004 | Mbipụta nke Vivien Labaton na Dawn Lundy (ed.), The Fire This Time: Young Activists and the New Feminism . |
| 2004 | Mmalite nke blọọgụ Feministing site na Jessica Valenti na Vanessa Valenti. |
| 2005 | Ellen Johnson Sirleaf na Liberia ghọrọ onye isi nwanyị mbụ a họpụtara n'Africa na onye isi ojii mbụ n'ụwa. [25] |
| 2005 | Angela Merkel ghọrọ nwanyị mbụ bụ chancellor nke Germany.[25] |
| 2007 | Nancy Pelosi ghọrọ nwanyị mbụ bụ onye isi oche na US Congress. [25] |
| 1 Eprel 2007 | Iwu Ịha nhata nwoke na nwanyị nke Iwu Ịha n'Ọdị 2006 na-abanye n'ọrụ na UK. Ọ chọrọ ka ndị ọchịchị "kwalite nha nhata nke ohere n'etiti ụmụ nwanyị na ụmụ nwoke".[25] |
| 2007 | Mbipụta nke Jessica Valenti, Full Frontal Feminism: A Young Woman's Guide to Why Feminism Matters. |
| 2007 | Mbipụta nke Julia Serrano, Whipping Girl: A Transsexual Woman on Feminism and the Scapegoating of FemininityNwa agbọghọ na-eti ihe: Nwaanyị na-agbanwe nwoke ma ọ bụ nwanyị na-eme ihe gbasara ụmụ nwanyị na Scapegoating nke ụmụ nwanyị |
| 2008 | Mbipụta nke Jaclyn Friedman na Jessica Valenti (ed.), Ee pụtara Ee. |
| 2008 | Norway chọrọ ka ụlọ ọrụ niile bụrụ na ọ dịkarịa ala pasent 40 nke ndị otu ha bụrụ ụmụ nwanyị.[25] |
| Mee 2008 | Na Los Angeles, di Diana Bijon, Michael, na-ewere aha nna ya mgbe ha lụrụ di, mgbe ikpe ha dugara na iwu steeti California ọhụrụ na-akwado ikike nke ndị di na nwunye na ndị mmekọ ụlọ edebanyere aha ịhọrọ aha nna ha kacha amasị ha.[27] |
| 2008 | Iwu Ịlụ di na nwunye (Nchebe Obodo) nke 2007 na-abanye n'ọrụ na UK. [25] |
| 2009 | Na UK, Carol Ann Duffy ghọrọ nwanyị mbụ na-ede uri Laureate.[25] |
| 3 Eprel 2011 | First SlutWalk na-ewere ọnọdụ na Toronto na nzaghachi nye nkwupụta onye uwe ojii Toronto Michael Sanguinetti na "ụmụ nwanyị kwesịrị izere iyi uwe dị ka ndị akwụna ka ha wee ghara imerụ ha ahụ".[98][28] |
Ihe edeturu
[dezie | dezie ebe o si]
Edensibia
[dezie | dezie ebe o si]
Akwụkwọ
[dezie | dezie ebe o si]- Chamberlain (2017). The feminist fourth wave : affective temporality. Springer. ISBN 9783319536828. Retrieved on 27 May 2019.
- Evans (2015). The Politics of Third Wave Feminisms: Neoliberalism, Intersectionality, and the State in Britain and the US. London: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-29527-9.
- Gillis (2007). Third Wave Feminism: A Critical Exploration, Revised, Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-1821-5.
- Henry (2004). Not My Mother's Sister: Generational Conflict and Third-Wave Feminism. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21713-4. OCLC 53932637.
- Baumgardner (2000). Manifesta: Young Women, Feminism, and the Future. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-0-374-52622-1.
- Newman (2012). Women, Politics, and Public Policy: The Political Struggles of Canadian Women, 2nd, Toronto: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195432497.
- Snyder (1 September 2008). "What Is Third-Wave Feminism? A New Directions Essay". Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 34 (1): 175–196. DOI:10.1086/588436. ISSN 0097-9740.
Ịgụ ihe ọzọ
[dezie | dezie ebe o si]
Ịtụ aro ige ntị
[dezie | dezie ebe o si]- Bikini Kill - The C.D. Version of the First Two Records (Kill Rock Stars) (1994)
- Eluigwe na Betsy - Calculated (Kill Rock Stars) (1992)
- Huggy Bear - Our Troubled Youth EP [apụta na Yeah Yeah Yeah kewara LP na Bikini Kill] (Kill Rock Stars) (1993)
- Alanis Morissette - Jagged Little Pill (Maverick/Reprise) (1995)
- Liz Phair - A chụgara ya na Guyville (Matador) (1993)
Njikọ mpụga
[dezie | dezie ebe o si]- "Ịghọ Wave nke Atọ" nke Rebecca Walker
- ajụjụ ọnụ na Rebecca Walker na Satya Magazine
- Ajụjụ ọnụ na Jennifer Baumgardner na Amy Richards
- 1 2 Walker (January 1992). "Becoming the Third Wave". Ms.: 39–41. ISSN 0047-8318. Retrieved on 2016-10-13.
- ↑ Rivers (2017). Postfeminism(s) and the Arrival of the Fourth Wave. Palgrave Macmillan.
- ↑ Cochrane. "The Fourth Wave of Feminism: Meet the Rebel Women", The Guardian, 10 December 2013. Retrieved on 2 June 2019.
- ↑ Tong (2009). Feminist Thought: A More Comprehensive Introduction, Third, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 284–285, 289. ISBN 978-0-8133-4375-4. OCLC 156811918.
- 1 2 3 Rowe-Finkbeiner (2004). The F Word: Feminism in Jeopardy. Emeryville, CA: Seal Press. ISBN 978-1-58005-114-9.
- ↑ Marcu (2010). Girls To The Front: The True Story of the Riot Grrrl Revolution. New York: HarperPerennial. ISBN 978-0-06-180636-0. Retrieved on 26 December 2022.
- 1 2 Dunn (2014-04-03). "Pussy Rioting" (in en). International Feminist Journal of Politics 16 (2): 317–334. DOI:10.1080/14616742.2014.919103. ISSN 1461-6742.
- ↑ "Spice Girls: What happened to Girl Power?". Retrieved on May 25, 2019.
- ↑ Freedman (2002). No Turning Back: The History of Feminism and the Future of Women. London: Ballantine Books. ISBN 9780345450531. OCLC 49193867.
- ↑ Faludi (1991). Backlash: The Undeclared War Against Women. New York: Crown Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-517-57698-4. OCLC 23016353.
- ↑ YU (October 2011). "Reclaiming the Personal: Personal Narratives of Third-Wave Feminists" (in en). Women's Studies 40 (7): 873–889. DOI:10.1080/00497878.2011.603606. ISSN 0049-7878.
- ↑ Hardin (2013). "From Second-Wave to Poststructuralist Feminism", The International Encyclopedia of Media Studies: Media Effects/Media Psychology. Blackwell. DOI:10.1002/9781444361506.wbiems991. ISBN 9781405193566.
- ↑ Elizabeth Adams St. Pierre (2000). "Poststructural feminism in education: An overview". International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education 13 (5): 477–515. DOI:10.1080/09518390050156422.
- ↑ Scott (1988). "Deconstructing Equality-versus-Difference: Or, the Uses of Poststructuralist Theory for Feminism". Feminist Studies 14 (1): 32–50. DOI:10.2307/3177997.
- ↑ Muscio (1998). Cunt: A Declaration of Independence. Seattle: Seal Press. ISBN 978-1-58005-015-9.
- ↑ Wurtzel (1998). Bitch: In Praise of Difficult Women. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-48400-8. OCLC 38144418.
- 1 2 Harnois (Spring 2008). "Re-Presenting Feminisms: Past, Present, and Future". NWSA Journal 20: 120–145. DOI:10.1353/ff.2008.a236183.
- ↑ Yenor (July 31, 2017). The Rolling Revolution in Sex and Gender: A History. Public Discourse. Witherspoon Institute. Archived from the original on 15 December 2018. Retrieved on 21 April 2019.
- ↑ Grady (July 20, 2018). The waves of feminism, and why people keep fighting over them, explained. Vox. Archived from the original on 5 April 2019. Retrieved on 21 April 2019.
- ↑ Munden (7 May 2003). "Female medical workers feel maternity leave unfair". The Kapi'o Newspress 36 (28).
- ↑ Iannello (2010). "Women's Leadership and Third-Wave Feminism", in O'Connor: Gender and Women's Leadership: A Reference Handbook. Sage Publishing, 70–77. ISBN 978-1412960830.
- ↑ Tarrant (2006). When Sex Became Gender. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-95347-4. OCLC 62281555.
- ↑ Marbley (Fall 2005). "African-American Women's Feelings of Alienation from Third-Wave Feminism: A Conversation with My Sisters". Western Journal of Black Studies.
- ↑ Carlson. "CBS to pay $8 million to settle sex discrimination lawsuit", Knight Ridder/Tribune News Service, 2000-10-25. Retrieved on 2016-04-25.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Women's History Timeline: 2000–now. Woman's Hour, BBC Radio 4. Archived from the original on 2015-10-19. Retrieved on 2012-10-31.
- ↑ March for Women's Lives. Guttmacher.org (April 25, 2005). Archived from the original on March 10, 2013. Retrieved on September 28, 2012.
- ↑ "Los Angeles man wins right to use wife's last name", Reuters, 2008-05-05. Retrieved on 2012-12-03.
- ↑ SlutWalk Toronto. Archived from the original on 2011-05-22. Retrieved on 2011-05-28.