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Underground Railroad

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Underground Railroad

Akwụkwọ okporo ụzọ n'okpuru ala bụ akụkụ a haziri hazi nke ụzọ na ụlọ nke Ndị na-achọ akwụkwọ onwe ji gbalaga na ndị abolitionist Northern United States na Eastern Canada. Ndị ohu Africa na Ndị Africa America gbapụrụ n'ọhụụ na-ele anya awụ nke iri na isii na ọtụtụ n'ime mgbapụ ha ịnwụ. [1] [2][3] Otú ọ dị, netwọk nke ụlọ ndị dị nchebe nke a maara dị ka Underground Railroad malitere ịhazi na 1780s n'etiti Abolitionist Societies na North. [4][5]Ọ gara n'ebe ugwu ma jiri ojiji na-eto ruo mgbe Onye isi ala Abraham Lincoln bịanyere aka na ike Nnwere Onwe na 1863 .[6] Ndị gbapụrụ agbapụ ịgbagha na steeti nweere onwe ha, ma ọnọdụ anya site n'ebe ahụ gaa Canada.[7]

Ụgbọ okporo ígwè n'okpuru ala malitere n'ebe ịgba ohu. Ụzọ ndị ahụ gbasoro ụzọ njem okike na nke mmadụ mere - osimiri, ọwa mmiri, ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri, Atlantic Coast, ụgbọ mmiri na ịgafe osimiri, okporo ụzọ na ụzọ. Ebe ndị dị nso n'ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri, ókèala ndị nweere onwe ha na ókèala mba ụwa mere ka ọtụtụ ndị gbapụ. Ka nnyocha na-aga n'ihu, a na-achọpụta ụzọ ọhụrụ ma ga-anọchite anya ya na map.[1]

Netwọk ahụ, nke bụ ọrụ nke ndị Africa America nweere onwe ha na ndị ohu, [8] ndị abolitionists na ndị ọzọ nwere ọmịiko maka ihe kpatara ndị gbapụrụ agbapụ nyere aka. A na-akpọkwa ndị ohu nọ n'ihe ize ndụ ijide ha na ndị nyeere ha aka dịka ndị njem na ndị nduzi nke ụzọ ụgbọ okporo ígwè, n'otu n'otu.[9] Ụzọ ndị ọzọ dị iche iche dugara Mexico, ebe e wepụrụ ịgba ohu, na nkọwa ndị dị na Caribbean na-azụ nke ahia ohu. [10][11] Ụzọ mgbapụ mbụ na-aga n'ebe ndịda na Spanish_Florida" id="mwVQ" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="Spanish Florida">Florida, mgbe ahụ bụ nke ndị Spain (ma e wezụga 1763-1783), dị site na ihe afụ nke 17 ruo ihe dị ka 1790. [12][13] N'oge Agha Obodo America, ndị na-achọ onwe gbagara na Union lines na South iji akwụkwọ akwụkwọ onwe ha. Otu akwụkwọ na-egosi na ka ọ na-erule 1850, ihe dị ka 100,000 ndị ohu agbapụla akwụkwọ onwe site na ngosi ahụ ahụ.. [6]Dị ka onye bụbu prọfesọ nke mkpagbu Pan-Africa J. Blaine Hudson, onye bụ dean nke College of Arts and Sciences na Mahadum Louisville, si kwuo, ka ọ na-erule ọchịchị Agha Obodo, 500,000 ma ọ bụ ụfọdụ ndị Africa America nwere onwe ha ihe n'ohu na Underground Railroad .[14]

Mmalite nke aha ahụ

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Eric Foner dere na okwu ahụ "ma Standard anya bụ nke mbụ akwụkwọ Washington ji mee ihe na 1839, na-ehota otu nwa ohu na-atụ anya ịgbanahụ ịbụ ohu site na ụzọ okporo ụzọ nke 'gafere n'okpuru ala ruo Boston'. [15] [16] Dr. Robert Clemens Smedley dere na-esochi mkpuchi ndị na-ejide ohu na- isi na ihe nchọgharị nke ndị na-agba ọsọ ruo n'ebe ugwu dị ka Columbia, Pennsylvania, ha 5 na-eme anya na "a ga- ụzọ ụgbọ okporo ụzọ n'okpuru ala n'ebe ụfọdụ," na-enye nke okwu ahụ..[17] Scott Shane dere na ojiji mbụ e dere ede nke okwu ahụ bụ n'otu edemede nke Thomas Smallwood dere na August 10, 1842, akwụkwọ nke Tocsin of Liberty, akwụkwọ akwụkwọ abolitionist , na Albany. O dekwara na akwụkwọ 1879 Sketches in the History of the Underground Railroad kwuru na a akwụkwọ ahụ ahụ aha n'otu akwụkwọ Washington nke 1839 nakwa na onye dere akwụkwọ kwuru afọ 40 ka e gosiri na o hotara akara ahụ site na dịka o nwere ike.[18]

Okwu

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Ndị otu Underground Railroad na-ejikarị okwu ụfọdụ, dabere na ihe atụ nke ụzọ ụgbọ okporo ígwè. Dịka ọmụmaatụ:

  • People who helped fugitive slaves find the railroad were "agents"
  • Guides were known as "conductors"
  • Hiding places were "stations" or "way stations"
  • "Station masters" hid escaping slaves in their homes
  • People escaping slavery were referred to as "passengers" or "cargo"
  • Fugitive slaves would obtain a "ticket"
  • Similar to common gospel lore, the "wheels would keep on turning"
  • Financial benefactors of the Railroad were known as "stockholders"[19]
  • Promised Land – code word for Canada
  • River Jordan – code word for Ohio River
  • Heaven – code for freedom or Canada[20]

A mara Big Dipper (onye "bowl" ya na-ezo aka na North Star) dị ka drinkin' gourd. A na-akpọ okporo ụzọ ụgbọ okporo ụzọ ahụ "ma ọ bụ ụgbọ oloko Oziọma", nke na-aga "Eluigwe" ma ọ dị "Ala Nkwa", ya bụ, Canada.[21]

Akụkọ ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị

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David Ruggles n'etiti ndị ikom abụọ na-eche John P. Darg ihu

Maka ndị ohu na-agba ọsọ na-agba ọsọ n'okporo ụzọ okporo ụzọ n'okpuru ala, ọtụtụ n'ime ha weere Canada dị ka ebe ikpeazụ ha na-aga. A na-eme ememe na 30,000 ruo 40,000 n'ime ha biri na Canada, ọkara n'ime ndị bịara n'etiti 1850 na 1860. Ndị ọzọ biri na steeti ndị nweere onwe ha n'ebe ugwu.[22] E dekọrọ ọtụtụ puku ikpe ụlọ ikpe maka ịgbapụ n'ohu ndị gbapụrụ agbapụ n'etiti Agha Mgbanwe na Agha Obodo. [23] N'okpuru Fugitive Slave Act nke 1793, a chọrọ ka ndị ọrụ si na steeti ndị nweere onwe ha nyere ndị nwe ohu ma ọ bụ ndị nnọchi anya ha ndị jidere ndị gbara ọsọ ndụ aka, mana ụfọdụ ndị omeiwu steeti machibidoro nke a. Iwu ahụ mere ka ọ dịrị ndị nwe ohu na ndị na-ejide ohu mfe ijide ndị Africa America ma weghachite ha n'ohu, ma n'ọnọdụ ụfọdụ nyere ha ohere ịgba ohu ndị isi ojii nweere onwe ha. O mekwara ka ndị abolitionists nwee ịnụ ọkụ n'obi iji nyere ndị ohu aka, na-akpata uto nke ndị na-emegide ịgba ohu na Underground Railroad.[24]

Site na ndị siri ike nke ndị agha ndị agha nke ndị mmadụ, Ndị Omeiwu mgbochi Nkwe ịhụnanya nke 1850 mgbe Agha Mexico na America nchebe. Ɔ iwu ohu na-agba ọsọ siri ike; n'ụzọ doro anya,, ahụ doziri nsogbu site n'ịmanye ndị ọrụ nke steeti ndị nweere onwe ha inyere ndị na-ejide ohu aka, na-enye ha akwụkwọ ozi onwe onye ọrụ na steeti nwere onwe ha.[25] N'ihi na iwu akwụkwọ akwụkwọ ole na ole iji kwuo na mmadụ bụ onye na-agba ọsọ, ndị na-ejide ohu ohu ndị isi ojii nweere onwe ha, mkpọsa, ma ree ha ka ha bụrụ ndị ohu. Ndị ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị ndịda na-ekwukarị na ọnụ ọgụgụ ndị ohu gbapụrụ agbapụ ma na-ebo ndị Northerners ebubo ịgbapụ ndị a na-etinye aka na ikike ihe onwunwe ndịda.[26] Iwu ahụ napụrụ ndị a na-enyo enyo na ha bụ ndị ohu ikike ịgbachitere onwe ha n'ụlọ ikpe, na-eme ka o sie ike igosi ọnọdụ nnwere onwe. Ụfọdụ steeti dị n'ebe ugwu akwụkwọ Iwu onwe onwe onwe mere ka ọ bụrụ iwu na-akwadoghị maka ndị ọrụ ejide ma ọ bụ ikike ndị bụbu ndị ohu. Echiche ahụ bụ steeti steeti dị n'ebe ugwu leghaara iwu na iwu ndị ohu na-agba ọsọ anya bụ isi ihe mere e ji nye nkewa..[27]

Ụzọ na ụzọ mgbapụ

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Ndị na-achọ nnwere onwe gbalaga n'obodo maroon nke Great Dismal Swamp.[28]

Ụzọ ụgbọ okporo ígwè dị n'okpuru ala gara n'ebe ugwu gaa na steeti ndị nweere onwe ha na Canada, gaa Caribbean, gaa na mpaghara ọdịda anyanwụ United States, na mpaghara India. Ụfọdụ ndị ohu na-agba ọsọ gara n'ebe ndịda Mexico maka nnwere onwe ha.[29][30] Ọtụtụ ndị gbapụrụ n'oké osimiri, egwu Ona Judge, onye Onye isi ala George Washington mere ohu. Ụfọdụ ndị ọkọ akụkọ ihe mere eme na-ele ụzọ mmiri nke South anya dị ka ihe dị mkpa maka ndị na-achọ nnwere onwe ịgbapụ dịka isi iyi mmiri bụ ụzọ na-eduga na nnwere onwe. Na mgbakwunye, ndị ọkọ akụkọ ihe mere eme nke Underground Railroad chọtara mgbasa ozi ohu 200,000 na akwụkwọ akụkọ North America site n'etiti afọ 1700 ruo na njedebe nke Agha Obodo America.[31] Ndị na-achọ akwụkwọ onwe na Alabama zoro n'ụgbọ mmiri na-aga Mobile, Alabama na-enwe mmetụta n'etiti obodo ndị ojii nweere onwe ha, ma zoo n'ụ ụgbọ mmiri ndị ọzọ na-ahapụ Alabama nke na-aga n'ebe ugwu n'ime egwu ndị nweere onwe na steeti ndị nweere.  N'afọ 1852, ndị omeiwu Alabama nyere iwu iji ọnụ ọgụgụ ndị na-achọ akwụkwọ onwe na-agbapụ n'okiri mmiri. Iwu ahụ na-ata ndị nwe ohu na ndị isi ụgbọ mmiri ahụhụ ma ọ bụrụ na ha ekwe ka ndị ohu banye n'ụgbọ ahụ n'enweghị ikike. Ndị na-achọ nnwere onwe na Alabama mekwara ụgbọ mmiri iji gbapụ.[32] Ndị na-achọ nnwere onwe gbapụrụ n'aka ndị ohu ha na Panama n'ụgbọ mmiri na-aga California site na ụzọ Panama. Ndị nwe ohu jiri ụzọ Panama ruo California. Na Panama ịgba ohu bụ iwu na-akwadoghị ma ndị Black Panamanians gbara ndị ohu si United States ume ịgbaga n'obodo Panama.[33]

Ndị na-achọ akwụkwọ onwe ụzọ ụzọ iji ịchụpụ ego ego nke Ndị na-ejide ohu site n'ịchọpụta nchọpụta ha. Otu usoro bụ iji okwukwe nke ọkụ ọkụ, ụzọ, na mmanya na akpụkpọ ụkwụ ha. Na North Carolina, ndị na-achọ akwụkwọ onwe na-etinye turpentine na akpụkpọ ụkwụ ha iji akara ndị na-ejide ohu akwado ha, na Texas, ndị na'ịgba ọsọ na-eji ihe e ji ụgbụgbọ ọkụ mee.[34] Ndị ọzọ na-agba ọsọ gbalaga n'ime ala ahịhịa iji sachaa ísì ha.[35] Ọtụtụ ndị na-agbapụ na-eme n'abalị mgbe ndị na-apụ apụ nwere ike zoo n'okpuru ọchịchịrị.[36]

Ụzọ ọzọ ndị na-achọ nnwere onwe na-eji gbochie ijide bụ iburu akwụkwọ ikike efu. N'oge ịgba ohu, ndị isi ojii nweere onwe ha gosipụtara ihe akaebe nke nnwere onwe ha site n'ibu paswọọdụ nke gosipụtara na ha nweere onwe ya. Ndị isi ojii nweere onwe ha na ndị ohu mepụtara akwụkwọ ikike efu maka ndị na-achọ nnwere onwe ka ha na-agafe steeti ndị ohu.[37][38]

Ebe ugwu gaa na steeti ndị nweere onwe ha na Canada

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Quaker abolitionist Levi Coffin na nwunye ya Catherine nyeere ihe karịrị mmadụ 2,000 aka ịgba ohu ka ha gbapụ.

N'agbanyeghị aha okporo ụzọ ahụ, echere mgbapụ ahụ n'okpuru ala ma ọ bụ ụzọ okporo ụzọ. (Ụzọ ụgbọ okporo ụzọ mbụ dị n'okpuru ala ruo 1863.) Dị ka John Rankin si kwuo, "Amụm ya otú ahụ n'ihi na ha ndị na-agafe na ya furu efu n'ihu ọha dị ka a ga-asisa na ha banye n'ala. nwere ike oyiyi n'efu. [39] A maara ya dị ka ụzọ ụgbọ okporo ígwè, na-eji okwu dị ka ọdụ ụgbọ okporo ígwè na ndị na-eji ya eme ihe.

Ụgbọ okporo ígwè n'okpuru ala enweghị isi ụlọ ọrụ ma ọ bụ òtù na-achịkwa, ma ọ bụ akwụkwọ ntuziaka, map, akwụkwọ mpịakọta, ma ọ bụkwa akụkọ akwụkwọ akụkọ. Ọ gụnyere ebe nzukọ, ụzọ nzuzo, njem, na ụlọ nchekwa, ha niile bụ ndị abolitionist na-elekọta ma na-agwa site n'ọnụ, ọ bụ ezie na e nwekwara akụkọ nke koodu ọnụọgụ eji ezoro ezo.[40] Ndị dị na-hazi n'ozuzu ha n'ịgụ ndị dị obere, ndị nweere onwe ha; nke a akụkụ aka idebe ihe. Ndị na-agbapụ n'ohu ga-aga n'ebe ugwu n'okporo ụzọ site n'otu ọdụ gaa na nke ọzọ. "Ndị na-eduzi" n'okporo ụzọ okporo ụzọ ahụ si n'ụzọ dị iche ma ndị isi ojii a iche n'efu, ndị ọcha abolitionists, ndị bụbu ndị ohu (ma ọ bụ ndị gbapụrụ ma ọ bụ ndị a tọhapụrụ), na ụmụ amaala America..[41] N'ikwere na ịgba ohu "megidere omume nke metụtara", ndị isi na ndị ndu keere òkè, Religious Society of Friends (Quakers), Congregationalists, Wesleyan Methodists, na Reformed Presbyterians, yana alaka ndị na-egosi ịgba ohu nke ndị isi nke na nkewa n'okwukwe ahụ, dị ka Methodist Episcopal Church na Baptists..[42] Ọrụ ndị isi ojii nweere onwe ha dị oke mkpa; na-enweghị ya, ọ fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ na ọ gaghị enwe ohere maka ndị na-agba ọsọ n'ohu iji nweta nnwere onwe n'enweghị nsogbu.[43] Ìgwè ndị ọrụ ụgbọ okporo ígwè n'okpuru ala rụrụ ọrụ n'òtù ndị a maara dị ka kọmitii nchebe.[44]

Obodo ndị ojii nweere onwe ha na Indiana, Illinois, Ohio, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, na New York nyeere ndị na-achọ nnwere onwe aka ịgbanahụ ịgba ohu. Chọọchị ndị isi ojii bụ ọdụ ụgbọ okporo ígwè dị n'okpuru ala, obodo ndị isi ojii dị na North zoro ndị na-achọ nnwere onwe na chọọchị na ụlọ ha. Ọkọ akụkọ ihe mere eme Cheryl Janifer Laroche kọwara n'akwụkwọ ya, Free Black Communities and the Underground Railroad The Geography of Resistance na: "Ndị isi ojii, ndị ohu na ndị nweere onwe ha, na-arụ ọrụ dị ka ndị isi na-eme ihe nkiri na ihe nkiri dị n'etiti nke bụ Underground Railways. " Laroche gara n'ihu kọwaa etu ụfọdụ ndị edemede si etinye aka na ndị ọcha na-emegide ịgba ohu dị ka isi ihe maka ndị na-achọ nnwere onwe na-agbapụ ma leghara ọrụ dị mkpa nke obodo ndị ojii nweere onwe.[45] Na mgbakwunye, onye edemede Diane Miller na-ekwu, sị: "N'ọdịnala, ndị ɔkɔ ọmụmụ ihe mere eme ụlọ ọrụ ndị Africa America anya n'ọchịchọ nke ha maka akwụkwọ onwe site n'igosi Underground Railroad dị ka ihe a haziri hazi site n'aka iche ndị ọcha, mgbe mgbe niile Quakers, nyere mere ndị mere ohu ohu' eme eji eme ihe nke Gara' na-enye mere ihe mere ndị ohu' eme eji eme nke Gara' na ọtụtụ ihe. Underground Railway bụ omenala ọ bụghị ihe mere mere eme. Omume nke ezigbo ndị isi ihe mere eme dị ka Harriet Tubman, Thomas Garrett, na Levi Coffin na-ekwubiga okwu ókè, a na-eto ndị abolitionists nke Northern bụ ndị duziri ndị ohu na Canada dị ka ndị dike nke Underground Railroad. Akụkọ a na-agụsị isi na ụlọ ọrụ nke ndị ohu ojii nwere onwe ha, ma na-egosi na ndị na-achọ akwụkwọ onwe ihuenyo nke ndị Northerners iji gbapụ.[46][47]

Ọdịdị ala

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Ndị na-achọ nnwere onwe gbapụrụ n'ohu wee rute Canada site na Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge.

Tal okporo dị n'okpuru ala ritere uru nke ukwuu site na ala nke ndị US-Canada: Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania na ọtụtụ n'ime New York kewara na Canada site na mmirika, nke njem na-ịja mfe mfe ma dịtụ aka. Ụzọ bụ ụzọ maka ndị na-achọ akwụkwọ onwe si South duuru ndị Appalachian, Harriet Tubman na-aga site na Harpers Ferry, site na mpaghara Western Reserve nke na-egosi ohu nke ugwu egwuregwu Ohio ruo n'ikpere mmirika buru ibu nke Lake Erie, wee gaa Canada site na ụgbọ mmiri. Azịza dị nta, na-agafe New York ma ọ bụ New England, ዜጋ Syracuse ( Samuel May) na Rochester, New York (Frederick Douglass), ngwaọrụ mgbasa Niagara ma ọ bụ Ọdọ Mmiri Ontario banye Canada. Ka ọ na-erule afọ 1848, e wuru Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge - ọ ejigide Niagara ma ihe New York na Canada. Ndị ohu na-agba ọsọ jiri àkwà mmiri ahụ gbapụ n'agbụ ha, Harriet Tubman jikwa àkwà ifufe ahụ buru ndị na-achọ akwụkwọ onwe Canada.[48][49] Ndị na-eme njem site na New York Adirondacks, mgbe ụfọdụ site na obodo ndị isi ojii dị ka Timbuctoo, New York, amaghị Canada site na Ogdensburg, na sere St. Lawrence, ma ọ bụ na Lake Champlain (Joshua Young nyere aka). Ezi-ụka, nke John Brown na ndị ọzọ ji mee ihe, si na Missouri gaa n'ebe ike iji hapụ Kansas na n'ebe ugwu iji tọhapụ Iowa, mgbe ahụ n'Ụzọ Iyi site na Chicago gaa na sere Detroit.

Thomas Downing bụ nwoke ojii nweere onwe ya na New York ma na-arụ ọrụ na ụlọ oriri na-eme Oyster dị ka ọkọ na Underground Railroad. Ndị na-achọ onwe (ndị ohu na-agba ọsọ) na-agbapụ n'ohu ma na-achọ onwe ha zoro n'okpuru ala nke ụlọ oriri na mgba Downing.[50] Ndị ohu akwụkwọ na-achọ akwụkwọ onwe aka ịgbanahụ ịgba ohu.  Arnold Gragstone ozi ohu ma nyere ndị na-agba ọsọ ọsọ ọsọ site n'ịduzi ha ngwaọrụ Ohio maka akwụkwọ onwe ha.[51]

William Still bụ nwoke ojii nweere onwe ya na Philadelphia nke nyeere ọtụtụ narị ndị na-achọ nnwere onwe aka ịgbapụ n'ohu.

William N'agbanyeghị, Ufodu a na-akpọ "Nna nke iwu okporo n'okpuru ala", ọtụtụ ndị ohu aka ịgbapụ (ihe ruru 60 n'naọn), mgbe ụfọdụ na-ezo ha n'iche ya na Philadelphia. O jiri nlezianya dekọọ, gụnyere akụkọ ndụ dị mkpirikpi nke ndị mmadụ, nke nwere ihe atụ ụgbọ okporo ígwè ugboro ugboro. Ya na ọtụtụ n'ime ha na-ederịta akwụkwọ ozi, na-arụkarị ọrụ dị ka onye na-anọchite anya nkwurịta okwu n'etiti ndị gbapụrụ n'ohu na ndị hapụrụ. O mechara bipụta akụkọ ndị a n'akwụkwọ The Underground Railroad: Authentic Narratives and First-Hand Accounts (1872), ihe bara uru maka ndị ọkọ akụkọ ihe mere eme iji ghọta otú usoro ahụ si arụ ọrụ ma mụta banyere ọgụgụ isi nke onye ọ bụla na mgbapụ.

Dị ka Still si kwuo, a na-edekarị ozi ka ọ bụ naanị ndị na-arụ ọrụ n'ụkọ okporo nwere ikike ike ha. apeere, ozi na-esonụ, "Ezigara m nnukwu anụ anọ na obere anụ abụọ n'elekere abụọ", na e nwee ndị okenye na-egosi abụọ site na Harrisburg gaa Philadelphia. Okwu ọzọ site na ndị njem na e zighị "ndị njem" na ụgbọ okporo ụzọ, kama site na Reading, Pennsylvania. N'okwu a, a ghọgburu ndịiche ka ha gaa n'ebe a na-ama (ọdụ ụgbọ okporo ụzọ) na mgbochi ndị na-agba ọsọ, ebe Still zutere ha na ụgbọ okporo ụzọ ziri ezi ma duzie ha n'ebe nchekwa. Ha mechara gbapụ ma ọ bụ gaa n'ebe ugwu ma ọ bụ Canada, ebe e wepụrụ ịgba ohu n'afọ 1830. [52]

Ịgba mbọ maka nnwere onwe n'ụlọ nkwakọba ihe na Maryland. Ihe osise osisi sitere na William Still's The Underground Rail Road, p. 50.

Iji belata ihe ize ndụ nke ịbanye, ọtụtụ ndị metụtara Underground Railroad maara naanị akụkụ ha nke ọrụ ahụ ọ bụghị atụmatụ ahụ dum. "Ndị ọkwọ ụgbọala" duuru ma ọ bụ buru "ndị njem" site na ọdụ gaa na ọdụ. Mgbe ụfọdụ, onye na-eduzi ihe na-eme ka a bụrụ ohu iji banye n'ubi. Ozugbo ọ bụ akụkụ nke ubi, onye nduzi ga-eduzi ndị na-agba ọsọ gaa n'ebe ugwu. Ndị ohu na-eme njem n'abalị, ihe dị ka 10-20 (16-32) gaa na ọdụ ọ bụla. Ha zuru ike, mgbe ahụ, e zigara ozi na ọdụ ọzọ iji mee ka onye isi ọdụ mara na ndị na-agba ọsọ nọ n'ụzọ. Ha ga-akwụsị na ihe a na-akpọ "ọdụ ụgbọ" ma ọ bụ "ebe nchekwa" n'ehihie ma zuo ike. A na-anọkarị ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri ahụ n'okpuru ala, ụlọ nkwakọba ihe, ụlọ ụka, ma ọ bụ n'ebe zoro ezo n'ọgba.[53][54][55][56]

A na-enye ebe izu ike ebe ndị na-achọ akwụkwọ onwe nwere ike ihi Ụra ma rie nri aha koodu "ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri" na "ihe nkwakọba ihe", nke "ndị nwe ụlọ ọrụ" nwere. "Ndị nwe ụlọ" nyere ego ma ọ bụ ihe ịfụ maka isi. N'iji ihe odide Bible, ndị na-agba ọsọ zoro aka na Canada dị ka "Ala Nkwa" ma ọ bụ "Eluigwe" na steeti Ohio, nke eji ụkwụ dị n'etiti steeti steeti ohu na steeti ndị nweere onwe ha, dị ka "River Jordan".[57]

Ọnọdụ njem

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]
Mary Meachum bụ onye ọrụ Underground Railroad na St. Louis, Missouri

Ọ bụ ezie na ndị na-achọ nnwere onwe na-eji ụgbọ mmiri ma ọ bụ ụgbọ okporo ígwè eme njem mgbe ụfọdụ, ha na- ụkwụ ma ọ bụbụ na-agagharị, mgbe ụfọdụ na-edina ala, ọzọ ya na hay ma ọ bụ ike ndị yiri ya, n'ìgwè nke otu onye ruo atọ. Ìgwè ụfọdụ buru ibu nke ukwuu. Onye abolitionist Charles Turner Torrey na ndị ọrụ ibe ya na- feeding ụgbọ ala ma na-ahụ ihe ruru mmadụ 15 ma ọ bụ 20 n'otu oge..[58] Ndị isi ojii nweere onwe ha na ndị ohu na-arụ ọrụ dị ka ndị na-akwọ ụgbọ mmiri (ndị na-akụ ụgbọ mmiri) nyeere ndị ohu aka ịgbanahụ ịgba ohu site n'inye njem n'ụgbọ mmiri ha, na-enye ozi gbasara ụzọ mgbapụ kachasị mma na nke kachasị mma, na ebe dị nchebe n'ala, na ebe ndị a tụkwasịrị obi maka enyemaka. Ndị Africa-America na-akwọ ụgbọ mmiri nwere ozi gbasara nnupụisi ndị ohu na-eme na Caribbean, ma zigara ndị ohu ha na ha nwere na ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri America akụkọ a. Ndị ọkwọ ụgbọ mmiri Africa-America nwere onwe ha na ndị ohu nyeere Harriet Tubman aka n'ọrụ nnapụta ya. Ndị ọkwọ ụgbọ mmiri ojii nyere ya ozi gbasara ụzọ mgbapụ kachasị mma ma nyere ya aka n'ọrụ nnapụta ya. Na New Bedford, Massachusetts, ndị na-achọ nnwere onwe zoro n'ụgbọ mmiri na-apụ n'ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri site n'enyemaka nke ndị ọrụ ojii na ndị ọcha ma zoo n'ụmụ ụgbọ mmiri n'oge njem ha na-aga nnwere onwe.[59]

  1. ↑ (1995) Special Resource Study, Management Concepts Underground Railroad. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Denver Service Center. 
  2. ↑ What is the Underground Railroad?. National Park Service. Archived from the original on 2025-02-08. Retrieved on 9 September 2024.
  3. ↑ New Jersey's Underground Railroad Heritage. New Jersey Historical Commission. New Jersey State Library. Retrieved on 18 September 2024.
  4. ↑ Historic Context for the Underground Railroad. Researching and Interpreting the Underground Railroad. The National Park Service. Retrieved on 8 September 2024.
  5. ↑ The Underground Railroad c. 1780–1862. Africans in America. PBS. Retrieved on 9 September 2024.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Vox (May 2, 2025). 3 Major Ways Enslaved People Showed Resistance to a Life in Bondage. ThoughtCo. Retrieved on July 1, 2025. Kpọpụta njehie: Invalid <ref> tag; name "afroamhistory" defined multiple times with different content
  7. ↑ Cross (2010). The Underground Railroad: The long journey to freedom in Canada. Toronto, ON: James Lorimer Limited, Publishers. ISBN 978-1-55277-581-3. 
  8. ↑ Hunter (December 20, 2013). To Set the Captives Free. Reverend Jermain Wesley Loguen and the struggle for freedom in central New York 1835–1872, 2nd, Hyrax Publishing. ISBN 978-1494767983. 
  9. ↑ The Underground Railroad. Public Broadcasting Service. Archived from the original on June 22, 2018. Retrieved on July 25, 2007.
  10. ↑ Leanos (2017). This underground railroad took slaves to freedom in Mexico, PRI's The World, Public Radio International, March 29, 2017. Public Radio International. Archived from the original on October 18, 2020. Retrieved on September 4, 2019.
  11. ↑ (2020) Leesa Jones Interview Transcript, 2020-01-07 [SHE.OH.017]. 
  12. ↑ Smith. "For a century, Underground Railroad ran south", March 18, 2012. Retrieved on March 23, 2012.
  13. ↑ McIver. "Fort Moses's Call To Freedom. Florida's Little-known Underground Railroad Was the Escape Route Taken by Slaves Who Fled to the State in the 1700s and Established America's First Black Town", Sun-Sentinel, February 14, 1993. Retrieved on February 10, 2018.
  14. ↑ Hudson 2015, p. 10.
  15. ↑ Pettit [1879] (1999). Sketches in the History of the Underground Railroad. Westfield, NY: Chautauqua Region Press. ISBN 0-9658955-3-X. , p. 131
  16. ↑ Foner 2015, pp. 6–9.
  17. ↑ Smedley (1883). History of the Underground Railroad in Chester and the neighboring counties of Pennsylvania. Mechanicsburg, Pa: Stackpole Books, 34–35. ISBN 978-0-8117-3189-8. 
  18. ↑ Shane. "How the Underground Railroad Got Its Name", The New York Times, September 11, 2023. Retrieved on September 11, 2023.
  19. ↑ Blight, David, 2004, p. 98
  20. ↑ Signal Songs of the Underground Railroad.
  21. ↑ History – National Underground Railroad Freedom Center. Freedomcenter.org. Archived from the original on August 17, 2018. Retrieved on June 7, 2016.
  22. ↑ Henry (January 31, 2020). Underground Railroad. The Canadian Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on May 9, 2021. Retrieved on 2022-03-02.
  23. ↑ Schweninger (2018). Appealing for Liberty: Freedom Suits in the South. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-066429-9. Retrieved on March 2, 2022. 
  24. ↑ C.W.A. (January 1984). "The Fugitive Slave Law of 1793 and its Antecedents". The Journal of Negro History 9: 22–25. DOI:10.2307/2713433. Retrieved on March 2, 2022. 
  25. ↑ Potter 1976, pp. 132–139.
  26. ↑ Gara. Underground Railroad. National Park Service. 
  27. ↑ Avalon Project – Confederate States of America – Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union. Avalon.law.yale.edu. Archived from the original on February 20, 2019. Retrieved on June 7, 2016.
  28. ↑ The Underground Railroad. Camden County, North Carolina Government. Retrieved on 13 September 2024.
  29. ↑ Selected Routes of the Underground Railroad. NPS. Archived from the original on 2024-09-21. Retrieved on 21 September 2024.
  30. ↑ Hudson 2015.
  31. ↑ Tabb (May 26, 2022). Symposium highlights enslaved people's escape by water. Coastal Review. Retrieved on 12 September 2024.
  32. ↑ Nordmann. Fugitive Slave Laws and Freedom Seeking. Encyclopedia of Alabama. Retrieved on 15 September 2024.
  33. ↑ The Quest for Freedom Moves West 1848–1869. NPS. Retrieved on 21 September 2024.
  34. ↑ Gattuso (October 14, 2020). A Historical Dig Sheds Light on the Food of the Underground Railroad. Atlas Obscura. Retrieved on 13 September 2024.
  35. ↑ The Underground Railroad. mrnussbaum.com. Retrieved on 10 September 2024.
  36. ↑ Stevens (2008). William Still and the Underground Railroad. Townsend Press. ISBN 9781591944140. 
  37. ↑ Biehl. Strategies for Escape: A Study of Fugitive Slave Ads (1770–1819). Princeton and Slavery. Princeton University. Retrieved on 15 September 2024.
  38. ↑ Successfully Escaping Slavery on Maryland's Underground Railroad. Visit Maryland. Retrieved on 15 September 2024.
  39. ↑ Ritchie (1870). The soldier, the battle, and the victory : being a brief account of the work of Rev. John Rankin in the anti-slavery cause. Cincinnati: Western Tract and Book Society, 96–97. 
  40. ↑ Wright. "The Grave of Old John Brown's Son. It Lies Above the San Gabriel Valley and Overlooks Pasadena. Owen and Jason Brown Lived in the Mountains and Were Guides to Tourists. Uncle James Townsend, a Venerable Quaker, Knew Them Both Well and Their Father", San Francisco Call, 21 Jun 1896, p. 24. Retrieved on September 24, 2021.
  41. ↑ "The Underground Railroad", National Geographic Society, November 16, 2011. Retrieved on August 1, 2017. (in en)
  42. ↑ (1976) History of Salem Township, Washtenaw County, Michigan (in English). Salem Area Historical Society. 
  43. ↑ Pinsker (2000). Vigilance in Pennsylvania: Underground Railroad Activities in the Keystone State, 1837–1861. Lancaster: PHMC. 
  44. ↑ Foner 2015.
  45. ↑ Laroche (2013). Free Black Communities and the Underground Railroad The Geography of Resistance. University of Illinois Press, 1–3. ISBN 9780252095894. 
  46. ↑ Miller. The Underground Railroad in Bleeding Kansas. The National Park Service. Archived from the original on 2025-03-04. Retrieved on 16 September 2024.
  47. ↑ Gara (2013). The Liberty Line The Legend of the Underground Railroad. University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 9780813143569. 
  48. ↑ The Niagara River: Between Slavery and Freedom. NPS. Retrieved on 21 September 2024.
  49. ↑ Niagara Falls Underground Railroad Heritage Center. NPS. Retrieved on 21 September 2024.
  50. ↑ Downing's Oyster House. Mapping the African American Past. Columbia University. Retrieved on 20 June 2024.
  51. ↑ Blaisdell (2014). Slave Narratives of the Underground Railroad. Dover Publications. ISBN 9780486780610. 
  52. ↑ Still (1872). The Underground Railroad: Authentic Narratives and First-Hand Accounts. Retrieved on July 25, 2015. 
  53. ↑ Cedarville University (February 12, 2018). "Underground Railroad Hiding Places". Slideshow Images. Retrieved on February 28, 2021. 
  54. ↑ Point of interest at Oakland City – site of barn of Col. James W. Cockrum used as an underground railroad station. Wabash Valley Visions & Voices Digital Memory Project (1930s). Archived from the original on April 15, 2021. Retrieved on February 27, 2021.
  55. ↑ The Underground Railroad (en). National Museum of African American History and Culture (March 15, 2017). Archived from the original on March 10, 2021. Retrieved on February 28, 2021.
  56. ↑ The Smith Underground Railroad Station :: Ohio :: Henry Robert Burke :: Lest We Forget. lestweforget.hamptonu.edu. Archived from the original on April 15, 2021. Retrieved on February 28, 2021.
  57. ↑ Underground Railroad Codes. Myths and Codes of the Underground Railroad. Greater Cincinnati Television Educational Foundation. Archived from the original on June 12, 2018. Retrieved on June 29, 2013.
  58. ↑ Torrey (2013). The Martyrdom of Abolitionist Charles Torrey. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. 
  59. ↑ The Underground Railroad: New Bedford Massachusetts. The National Park Service. Retrieved on 13 September 2024.
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