Age discrimination in the United States

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Na United States, steeti niile emeela iwu ndị na-egbochi ịkpa ókè afọ, a na-egbochikwa ịkpa ókè n'okpuru iwu gọọmentị etiti dịka Agha Ịkpa ókè n"Ọrụ Iwu nke 1967 (ADEA).[1][2][3] Otú ọ dị, ọ dị mkpa iburu n'uche na ịkpa ókè afọ abụwo nsogbu maka ndị na-achọ ọrụ, ndị ha hụrụ n'anya na akụ na ụba America.[4]

Mmekọrịta ụgwọ[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

The Equal Credit Opportunity Act (ECOA) bụ iwu United States (nke edepụtara na 15 USC § et seq.), nke e tiri n'abalị iri abụọ na asatọ n'ọnwa Ọktoba n'afọ 1974, nke na-eme ka onye ọ bụla na-akwụ ụgwọ ghara ịkpa ókè megide onye ọ bụla, n'ihe gbasara akụkụ ọ bụla azụmahịa akwụmụgwọ, dabere na (n'etiti ihe ndị ọzọ), ọ bụrụhaala na onye na-arịọ arịrịọ nwere ikike ịkpa nkwekọrịta.[5][6]

Ọfịs a họpụtara ahọpụta[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Ụfọdụ ụlọ ọrụ ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị US nwere nzere na-akpa ókè dabere na afọ. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, dịka Iwu Iwu nke United States si dị, Onye isi ala nke United States ga-abụrịrị na ọ dịkarịa ala afọ 35; onye omeiwu United States ga na-abụrịọ ma ọ dịkarịrị afọ 30; na onye otu United States House of Representatives ga-abụkwa ma ọ dị ala afọ 25.

Ọrụ[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA) (29 U.S.C. § to 29 U.S-C. § ) bụ iwu gọọmentị etiti na-enye ụfọdụ nchebe ọrụ maka ndị ọrụ karịrị afọ iri anọ, ndị na-arụ ọrụ maka onye were mmadụ n'ọrụ nwere ndị ọrụ iri abụọ ma ọ bụ karịa. Maka ndị ọrụ echedoro, ADEA machibidoro ịkpa ókè na ọkwa ọrụ niile, site na iwe n'ọrụ na iwe n"ọrụ, site na mmekọrịta ọrụ, na site na mkpebi maka ịchụpụ ma ọ bụ ịkwụsị mmekọrịta ọrụ.[7][3] Enwere ike ịkọwa oke afọ maka ndị ọrụ a na-echebe n'ọnọdụ ebe egosila na ọ bụ "ezi iru eru ọrụ [BFOQ] dị mkpa maka ọrụ otu azụmahịa ahụ" (lee 29 USC. § 623(f)). N'omume, BFOQs maka afọ na-ejedebe na ihe doro anya (ịkwụ ụgwọ onye na-eme ihe nkiri na-eto eto ka ọ bụrụ onye na-etolite ihe nkiri), mgbe ọrụ na-achọsi ike (ndị uwe ojii, ndị ọrụ mgbanyụ ọkụ, ọrụ agha), ma ọ bụ mgbe nchekwa ọha na eze bụ nchegbu (dịka ọmụmaatụ, n'ihe gbasara afọ maka ndị ọkwọ ụgbọelu, ndị ọkwọ ụgbọala, na ndị ọkwọ bọs).

Steeti ụfọdụ dị ka New York na New Jersey gụnyere District of Columbia nwere iwu na-echebe ndị ọrụ na-eto eto site na ịkpa ókè afọ, omume a na-amachibidoghị n'okpuru ADEA. N'ógbè ndị a, iwu machibidoro ndị were mmadụ n'ọrụ ịkpa ókè megide ndị ọrụ 18 ma ọ bụ karịa maka afọ ha ọ gwụla ma ezigbo iru eru ọrụ dị (ya bụ, ndị were mmadụ mmadụ n'ọhịa nwere ike ịchọ ka ndị na-ere mmanya bụrụ ma ọ dịkarịa ala 21 iji mezuo afọ ịṅụ mmanya iwu).[8][9]

N'afọ 1968, EEOC kwupụtara na mmachi afọ na ọrụ ndị na-arụ ọrụ n'ụgbọelu bụ ịkpa ókè nwoke na nwanyị n'ụzọ iwu na-akwadoghị n'okpuru Isi nke asaa nke Iwu Ikike Obodo nke 1964.[10]

Ịla riri ezumike nká[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Ịla ezumike nká iwu n'ihi afọ bụ iwu na-akwadoghị na United States, ma e wezụga na ụlọ ọrụ na ọrụ ụfọdụ nke iwu na-achịkwa, ma na-abụkarị akụkụ nke gọọmentị (dị ka ọrụ agha na ụlọ ọrụ ndị uwe ojii gọọmentị etiti, dị ka Federal Bureau of Investigation). Minnesota emeela ka ndị ọkàikpe niile na-ala ezumike nká mgbe ha dị afọ 70 (nke doro anya, na ngwụcha ọnwa onye ọka ikpe ruru afọ ahụ). Ndị omeiwu Minnesota nwere ikike iwu iji setịpụ afọ ezumike nká ikpe kemgbe 1956, mana emeghị ya ruo 1973, na-etinye afọ 70.[11] Iwu Federal Age Discrimination in Employment Act, nke ghọrọ iwu na 1986, kwụsịrị ịla ezumike nká metụtara afọ 70 maka ọtụtụ ọrụ, na-agụnyeghị ndị ọka ikpe Minnesota; ihe ọzọ dị iche bụ ụlọ ọrụ postsecondary niile (kolleji, wdg.[11]) Nke a kwụsịrị na Disemba 31, 1993.[12][13] The Fair Treatment for Experienced Pilots Act (Public Law 110-135) malitere na Disemba 13, 2007, na-ebuli afọ ezumike nká iwu maka ndị ọkwọ ụgbọelu ruo 65 site na 60.

Ụgwọ ọrụ kacha nta[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

N'afọ 1986, e dezigharịrị Iwu Ụkpụrụ Ọrụ Ezi Omume iji nye odeakwụkwọ ọrụ United States ohere inye asambodo pụrụ iche iji nye onye were mmadụ n'ọrụ ohere ịkwụ ụgwọ na-erughị ụgwọ ọrụ kacha nta maka ndị na-enweta ego ma ọ bụ ikike mmepụta ihe na-emebi site na afọ, nkwarụ anụ ahụ ma ọ bụ uche, ma ọ bụ mmerụ ahụ.[14] A ka ga-akwụ ndị ọrụ a ụgwọ ọrụ ndị metụtara mmepụta ihe nke onye ahụ ma kwekọọ na ndị a kwụrụ ndị ọrụ na-enweghị nkwarụ.[14]

Iwu ụgwọ ọrụ kacha nta nke gọọmentị etiti na-enye ndị were mmadụ n'ọrụ ohere ịkwụ ndị ọrụ na-eto eto ụgwọ ọrụ dị ala. Ọtụtụ iwu ụgwọ ọrụ kacha nta nke steeti na mpaghara na-egosipụta ụgwọ ọrụ kacha elu nke dabeere na afọ.

Iwe na ọrụ maka ụmụaka[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Na United States, mmadụ ga-abụrịrị na ọ dịkarịa ala afọ iri na anọ iji chọọ ọrụ, ndị ọrụ na-enwekwa ihe mgbochi ndị ọzọ na ọrụ ha ruo mgbe ha ruru afọ iri na isii.[15] Mmachibido afọ ndị ọzọ maka ndị ọrụ dịgasị iche site na steeti. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, ọtụtụ steeti chọrọ ka ndị ọrụ na-erubeghị afọ iri na asatọ nwee ikike ọrụ ma ghara ịrụ ọrụ ndị a na-ewere dị ka ihe ize ndụ.[16]

Iwu ikpe a ma ama[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Na Western Air Lines, Inc v Criswell 472 US 400 (1985) Ụlọikpe Kasị Elu nke United States kwenyere na ọ bụ iwu chọrọ ka ndị na-anya ụgbọelu laa ezumike nká na 60, n'ihi na Federal Aviation Authority machibidoro iji ndị na-agba ụgbọelu karịrị 60 na ụgbọelu. Mana Ụlọikpe ahụ kwenyere na ịjụ iwe ndị injinia ụgbọ elu n'ọrụ karịa afọ ahụ bụ ihe na-ezighị ezi n'ihi na enweghị ihe FAA chọrọ. (Rịba ama na Iwu Fair Treatment for Experienced Pilots Act (Public Law 110-135) malitere na Disemba 13, 2007, na-ebuli afọ ezumike nká maka ndị ọkwọ ụgbọelu ruo 65 site na 60.)

DeMarco v. Ụlọ Akwụkwọ Sekọndrị Holy Cross 4 F.3d 166 (2nd Cir. 1993) bụ ikpe ịkpa ókè n'ọrụ nke e webatara n'okpuru ADEA (Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967). A tọhapụrụ onye na-arịọ arịrịọ, Guy DeMarco, n'ọrụ tupu ya eruo maka ọrụ mgbe ọ dị afọ iri anọ na itoolu. Holy Cross High School kwuru na ọ bụghị n'okpuru iwu ADEA, ma ọ bụrụ na ikpe a megide ya bụ imebi Free Exercise Clause na Establishment Clause nke Ndezigharị Mbụ. Onye a na-ebo ebubo kwukwara na onye gbara akwụkwọ ejighị ihe ngwọta nchịkwa dịnụ mee ihe. Ụlọ ikpe ahụ kwuru na iwu ndị ọzọ na-emegide ịkpa ókè na-emetụta òtù okpukpe, ma e wezụga iwu ndị machibidoro ịkpa ókè dabere na nkwenkwe okpukpe. Ebe ọ bụ na iwu ndị machibidoro ịkpa ókè site na agbụrụ, okike na mmalite mba achọtala na ọ metụtara òtù okpukpe, ọ bụ ihe ezi uche dị na ya (na nkọwa ezi uche dị n'ihe banyere akụkọ ihe mere eme nke iwu) ịgbatị mmachibido iwu megide ịkpa ókè afọ na òtù okpukpe.[17] A gbanwere mkpebi nke ụlọ ikpe distrikti ma weghachite ikpe ahụ maka usoro ọzọ.[18]

Hazen Paper Co. v. Biggins 507 U.S. 604 (1993) bụ ikpe Ụlọikpe Kasị Elu nke United States nke ụlọ ikpe ahụ kwenyere na nkwupụta mmeso dị iche iche enweghị ike ịga nke ọma ọ gwụla ma àgwà nchebe nke onye ọrụ ahụ nwere mmetụta siri ike na mkpebi onye were ya n'ọrụ.[19][20] Ikpe a metụtara otú Hazen Paper si chụpụ Biggins, 62, izu ole na ole tupu ọrụ ya eruo afọ ole a chọrọ maka ezumike nká ya. Biggins gbara Hazen Paper akwụkwọ na-ebo ebubo imebi Iwu Ịkpa Ókè Afọ n'Ime Ọrụ nke 1967.[21]

Na Kimel v. Florida Bd. of Regents, 528 U.S. 62 (2000), Ụlọikpe Kasị Elu nke United States kwenyere na ndị ọrụ steeti enweghị ike ịgba steeti akwụkwọ maka mmebi ego n'okpuru Iwu Ịkpa Ókè na Ọrụ nke 1967 n'ụlọ ikpe gọọmentị etiti. EEOC ka nwere ike ịmanye ADEA megide steeti, ndị ọrụ steeti ka nwere ike ịgba ndị ọrụ steet akwụkwọ maka enyemaka nkwupụta na inye iwu.[22]

Na Gomez-Perez v. Potter (2008), Ụlọikpe Kasị Elu nke United States nyere ndị ọrụ gọọmentị etiti na-enweta mmegwara n'ihi ịkọ akụkọ ịkpa ókè afọ n'okpuru iwu ka ha gbaa akwụkwọ maka mmebi.

Ụlọikpe Kasị Elu nke United States, na <i id="mwig">Meacham v</i>. <i id="mwig">Knolls Atomic Power Lab</i>, 554 U.S. 84 (2008), kwenyere na onye were mmadụ n'ọrụ, ọ bụghị onye ọrụ, na-ebu ibu arọ nke igosi na ịchụpụ ma ọ bụ ihe ọzọ na-emerụ ndị ọrụ meworo agadi karịa ndị ọzọ adabere ọ bụghị n'afọ kama n'ihe ndị ọzọ nwere ezi uche.[23]

N'afọ 2009, Ụlọikpe Kasị Elu nke United States nyere echiche ya na Gross v. FBL Financial Services, Inc.. N'echiche nke afọ 50, Ụlọikpe ahụ kpebiri na ndị na-eme mkpesa na ngalaba onwe ha ga-egosi na afọ bụ "ma maka" ihe kpatara ọrụ ọjọọ ha na-agba akwụkwọ.[24][25] Nke ahụ bụ, onye gbara akwụkwọ ga-egosi na ịkpa ókè afọ bụ ihe kpatara omume ọrụ na-adịghị mma (dịka ọmụmaatụ, a gaghị eme ihe 'ma maka' afọ onye gbara akwụkwọ).[26] Agbanyeghị, echiche Ụlọikpe Kasị Elu ekwughị ndị ọrụ ọha na eze n'ụzọ doro anya.[27] Echiche e mechara, Mahadum Texas Southwestern Medical Center v. Nassar (2013) jiri otu ụkpụrụ 'ma maka' mee ihe maka nkwupụta mmegwara.

N'ọnwa Septemba 2016, California weputara iwu steeti AB-1687, iwu na-emegide ịka nká nke malitere na 1 Jenụwarị 2017, na-achọ ọrụ "ọrụ ntụrụndụ azụmahịa n'ịntanetị" nke na-enye ndị debanyere aha ohere ịnye ozi na ịmaliteghachi (dị ka IMDB Pro), iji kwanyere arịrịọ iji wepụ afọ na ụbọchị ọmụmụ ha. Ndị isi ala SAG-AFTRA bụbu na nke ugbu a bụ Ken Howard na Gabrielle Carteris kwadoro iwu ahụ, bụ ndị chere na iwu ahụ ga-enyere aka belata afọ ndụ na ụlọ ọrụ ntụrụndụ.[28] N'abalị iri abụọ na atọ n'ọnwa Febụwarị n'afọ 2017, onye ọka ikpe US District Vince Girdhari Chhabria wepụtara nkwụsịtụ na iwu ahụ ka ọ na-echere ikpe ọzọ, na-azọrọ na ọ "na-esiri ike iche n'echiche otú AB 1687 si ghara imebi Ndezigharị Mbụ" n'ihi na ọ na-egbochi ọha na eze iji ozi eziokwu.[29] N'ọnwa Febụwarị afọ 2018, Girdhari kpebiri na iwu ahụ megidere iwu, na-ekwu na steeti California "[egosighi] na iwepụ otu isi iyi nke ozi metụtara afọ ga-ebelata oke ịkpa ókè afọ na-eme na ụlọ ọrụ ntụrụndụ. " SAG-AFTRA katọrọ mkpebi ahụ, na-azọrọ na ụlọ ikpe ahụ "kwubiri n'ụzọ na-ezighị ezi na ọ nweghị ihe a na-ese okwu eziokwu, ka ọ na-egbochi ndị otu ahụ inweta ihe akaebe ọzọ ma ọ bụ ikwe ka ikpe ahụ gaa ikpe". E mechara mee mkpesa banyere mkpebi ahụ, mana Ụlọikpe Mkpegharị Ikpe nke itoolu kwadoro ya na 2020.[30]

Babb v. Wilkie[Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] ___ (2020), bụ ikpe nke Ụlọikpe Kasị Elu nke United States nke ndị ọka ikpe tụlere oke nchebe maka ndị ọrụ gọọmentị etiti na Iwu Ịkpa ókè Afọ na Ọrụ nke 1967. N'ụzọ doro anya, Ụlọikpe ahụ kpebiri na ndị na-eme mkpesa kwesịrị igosi na afọ bụ ihe na-akpali akpali na mkpebi ahụ iji gbaa akwụkwọ. Otú ọ dị, iguzobe ma maka ihe kpatara ya ka dị mkpa iji chọpụta ihe ngwọta kwesịrị ekwesị. Ọ bụrụ na onye gbara akwụkwọ nwere ike ịchọpụta na afọ bụ ihe na-ekpebi ihe ga-esi n'ọrụ pụta, ha nwere ike ịnwe ikike ịkwụ ụgwọ mmebi ma ọ bụ enyemaka ndị ọzọ metụtara nsonaazụ ikpeazụ nke mkpebi ọrụ.[25][31]

Our Lady of Guadalupe School v. Morrissey-Berru, 591 U.S. ___ (2020), bụ ikpe Ụlọikpe Kasị Elu nke United States nke metụtara iwu ịkpa ókè ọrụ gọọmentị etiti. Ikpe ahụ sitere na mkpebi Ụlọikpe Kasị Elu mere na Hosanna-Tabor Evangelical Lutheran Church & School v. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (2012) nke mepụtara ihe pụrụ iche nke ndị minista dabere na Ntọala na Nkwupụta Nkwado nke Iwu Iwu United States, na-ekwusi ike na enweghị ike itinye iwu ịkpa ókè nke gọọmentị etiti na ndị isi nke òtù okpukpe. Ikpe Ụlọikpe Kasị Elu Our Lady of Guadalupe School v. Morrissey-Berru, tinyere St. James School v. Biel (Docket 19-348), ha abụọ sitere na mkpebi ikpe na United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit nke chọpụtara na iwu ịkpa ókè nke gọọmentị etiti na-emetụta ndị ọzọ n'ime nzukọ okpukpe nke na-arụ ọrụ okpukpe dị mkpa mana enweghị aha ma ọ bụ ọzụzụ ka a were ya dị ka onye ndú okpukpe n'okpuru Hosanna-Tabor. Otu n'ime mkpebi ikpe ndị ahụ na United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit bụ mkpebi ikpe na Morrissey-Berru v. Our Lady of Guadalupe School, na 2019, nke Ụlọikpe Mkpegharị Ikpe nke United States maka Mpaghara nke itoolu nyere ohere ka onye nkuzi ụlọ akwụkwọ elementrị Katọlik nwee ikpe ịkpa ókè afọ iji gaa n'ihu.[32] Nzukọ okpukpe ahụ mara mkpebi ahụ aka na ndabere nke Hosanna-Tabor. Ụlọikpe Kasị Elu kpebiri na mkpebi nke 72 a kpọrọ Our Lady of Guadalupe School v. Morrissey-Berru na Julaị 8, 2020 nke gbanwere mkpebi nke Ninth Circuit, na-ekwusi ike na ụkpụrụ Hosanna-Tabor, na mmadụ nwere ike ịrụ ọrụ okpukpe dị mkpa ọbụlagodi na o nweghị aha ma ọ bụ ọzụzụ nke onye ndú okpukpe, mezuru ndị minista na ịkpa ókè ọrụ.[33]

Ihe omume gọọmentị etiti na-akwado[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

The Older Americans Amendments of 1975 (Àtụ:USPL) is an Act of the 94th U.S. Congress amending the Older Americans Act of 1965. It prohibits discrimination based on age in programs or activities that receive federal financial assistance, for instance, financial assistance to schools and colleges, provided by the U.S. Department of Education.[34][35]

Mpụ ịkpọasị[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Mpaghara Columbia na steeti iri na abụọ (California, Florida, Iowa, Hawaii, Kansas, Louisiana, Maine, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Mexico, New York, na Vermont) na-akọwa afọ dị ka ihe na-akpali mpụ ịkpọasị.

Ịtụ vootu[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Ndezigharị nke iri abụọ na isii nke Iwu Iwu United States na-agụ:   N'afọ 1943 na 1955 n'otu n'otu, ndị omeiwu Georgia na Kentucky kwadoro usoro iji belata afọ ịtụ vootu ruo 18.[36]

Na June 22, 1970, Onye isi ala Richard Nixon bịanyere aka na ndọtị nke Iwu Ikike Voting nke 1965 nke chọrọ ka afọ ịtụ vootu bụrụ 18 na ntuli aka gọọmentị etiti, steeti, na mpaghara niile.[37] Na nkwupụta ya banyere ịbịanye aka na ndọtị ahụ, Nixon kwuru, sị:   N'ikpeazụ, Oregon na Texas mara iwu ahụ aka n'ụlọ ikpe, ikpe ahụ wee bịa n'ihu Ụlọikpe Kasị Elu na 1970 dị ka Oregon v. Mitchell[38] Ka ọ na-erule n'oge a, steeti anọ nwere afọ ole na ole na-atụ vootu n'okpuru 21: Georgia, Kentucky, Alaska na Hawaii.[39][40] Na Oregon v. Mitchell (1970), Ụlọikpe Kasị Elu tụlere ma ndokwa afọ ịtụ vootu nke Congress gbakwunyere na Iwu Ikike ịtụ vootu na 1970 bụ iwu. Ụlọikpe ahụ wepụrụ ndokwa ndị guzobere 18 dị ka afọ ịtụ vootu na ntuli aka steeti na nke ime obodo. Otú ọ dị, Ụlọikpe ahụ kwadoro ndokwa nke na-eguzobe afọ ịtụ vootu dị ka 18 na ntuli aka gọọmentị etiti. Ụlọikpe ahụ kewara nke ukwuu n'okwu a, ọtụtụ ndị ọka ikpe ekwekọrịtaghị na ihe kpatara ya.[41] Mkpebi ahụ mere ka steeti nwee ike ịnọgide na-enwe afọ 21 dị ka afọ ịtụ vootu na ntuli aka steeti na nke ime obodo, mana achọrọ ka ha guzobe ndepụta ndị na-atụ vootu dị iche iche ka ndị na-eme ntụli aka n'agbata afọ 18 na 21 wee nwee ike ịtụ vootu n'ime ntuli aka gọọmentị etiti.[42]

Ịgba mbọ[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Ihe dịka Newsboys Strike nke 1899 lụsoro omume ọrụ ndị agadi ọgụ megide ndị ntorobịa site na nnukwu ụlọ ọrụ akwụkwọ akụkọ na Northeast. Ndị na-eme ngagharị iwe gosipụtara n'ofe obodo ahụ ruo ọtụtụ ụbọchị, na-akwụsị mgbasa nke akwụkwọ akụkọ abụọ ahụ, yana nkesa akụkọ maka ọtụtụ obodo New England. Ọgbaghara ahụ were izu abụọ, na-eme ka Pulitzer's New York World belata mgbasa ozi ya site na akwụkwọ 360,000 a na-ere kwa ụbọchị ruo 125,000.[43] Ọ bụ ezie na ọnụahịa akwụkwọ ahụ emeghị ka ọ daa, ọgbaghara ahụ nwere ihe ịga nke ọma n'ịmanye World and Journal ka ha nye ndị na-ere ha ịzụta ihe zuru oke, si otú a na-abawanye ego ndị ọhụrụ nwetara maka ọrụ ha.[44]

E guzobere American Youth Congress, ma ọ bụ AYC, na 1935 iji kwado ikike ndị ntorobịa na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị US. Ọ kwụsịrị na 1940.[45]

Maggie Kuhn guzobere Gray Panthers na 1970, na ebumnuche nke iwepụ ezumike nká iwu; ha na-arụ ọrụ ugbu a n'ọtụtụ okwu ikpe ziri ezi gụnyere iwepụ afọ.[46][47][48]

Youth Liberation of Ann Arbor malitere na 1970 iji kwalite ndị ntorobịa na ịlụso afọ ọgụ.

Three O'Clock Lobby guzobere na 1976 iji kwalite ntinye aka ndị ntorobịa n'ime ụlọ ọrụ gọọmentị ndị agadi na Michigan.

Senior Action in a Gay Environment (SAGE) bụ nke ndị na-eme ihe ike na ndị na-ahụ maka nwoke na nwanyị na ndị na ndị na'ọrụ na-eme agadi guzobere na 1978. A na-akpọ ya ugbu a Services & Advocacy for GLBT Elders. Ọ na-arụ ọrụ na ndị okenye LGBT na ndị na-enye ọrụ ndị agadi iji dozie ma merie ihe ịma aka nke ịkpa ókè na ntọala ọrụ ndị okenye.[49]

OWL - The Voice of Women 40+ bụ nke ehiwere dịka otú Older Women's League bụ nke sitere na aka Tish Sommers and Laurie Shields, n'ihi ndị omeiwu White House mini konferensin' ebe Older Women in Des Moines, Iowa na ọktober na afọ otu puku, narị itoolu na iri asatọ. Ọ kwuru maka ụmụnwaanyị bi na United States of Amerika ndị nke gafere la afọ iri anọ. Na onwa Maachị na afọ puku abụọ na iri na asaa, ekwupụtara na Ndị otua nke etiti ekwerela I kewapụ, mana mpaghara ndị nke dị ala nwere ike ga n' iru na ezuko n' okpuru aha OWL ma ọ bụ aha ọzọ


40 and over. In March 2017, it was reported that the national organization had decided to disband, but local chapters may continue to function under the OWL name or possibly another name.[50]

E hiwere Old Lesbians Organizing for Change na afọ otu puku, narị itoolu na iri asatọ na asaa ; ebumnuche nke nzukọ ahụ bụ "iwepụ mmegbu nke ageism na iguzo n'ịdị n'otu megide mmegbu niile" site na obodo na-arụkọ ọrụ ọnụ nke ndị na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị Old Lesbian si n'ọtụtụ ebe na-arụ ọrụ maka ikpe ziri ezi na ọdịmma nke ndị inyom ochie niile.[51] Nzukọ mbụ ha sitere n'ike mmụọ nsọ site na mbipụta nke akwụkwọ Look Me in the Eye: Old Women, Aging and Ageism nke Barbara Macdonald na Cynthia Rich na afọ otu puku, narị itoolu na iri asatọ na atọ.[52]

Ndị America maka Society Free from Age Restrictions guzobere na afọ otu puku, narị itoolu na iri itoolu na isii iji kwalite ikike obodo na nke mmadụ nke ndị na-eto eto site na iwepụ iwu ndị na-eme agadi megide ndị na-esote, yana inyere ndị ntorobịa aka igbochi ịka afọ ndụ na America.[53]

Ndị otu National Youth Rights Association malitere na afọ otu puku, narị itoolu na iri itoolu na asatọ iji kwalite mmata banyere ikike iwu na ikike mmadụ nke ndị na-eto eto na United States.[54]

E guzobere Freechild Project na 2001 iji chọpụta, jikọta ma kwalite ohere dị iche iche maka ndị ntorobịa itinye aka na mgbanwe mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya site na ịlụ ọgụ megide afọ. N'afọ 2002, Freechild Project mepụtara ozi na ọzụzụ iji nye ndị otu ndị ntorobịa na ụlọ akwụkwọ ndị lekwasịrị anya na ikike ndị ntorobịa.

Hụkwa[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

  • Ihe gbasara ịgba afọ
  • Ịka nká n'etiti ndị ọrụ America
  • Iwu ndị okenye
  • Akụkọ banyere ikike ndị ntorobịa na United States
  • Ikike ndị bi n'ụlọ ndị agadi
  • Ikike ndị ntorobịa

Maka I gụrụ gawa[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

  • Axon, K. (onye a mụrụ) The Anti-Child Bias of Children's Advocacy Groups Chicago, IL: Americans for a Society Free from Age Restrictions.
  • [Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] Otu ọgbọ furu efu: eziokwu nke ịkpa ókè afọ na omume iwe mmadụ n'ọrụ taa. Journal of Management and Marketing Research, 9, 1 10. Ọchụchọ agụmakwụkwọ zuru ezu. Ebe nrụọrụ weebụ 21 Septemba 2013.
  • Butler (1975). Why Survive? Being Old In America. Harper & Row, 496 pages. ISBN 0-06-010591-7. 
  • The Children's Rights Movement: Overcoming the Oppression of Young People, nke Beatrice na Ronald Gross dezigharịrị (Garden City, NY: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1977.
  • Kuhn, M., Long, C. na Quinn, L. (1991) No Stone Unturned: the Life and Times of Maggie Kuhn. Akwụkwọ Ballantine.
  • [Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] Mgbapụ site na nwata: Mkpa na ikike nke ụmụaka. Boston: E. P. Dutton.
  • Macdonald (1983). Look Me in the Eye: Old Women, Aging and Ageism. Spinsters Ink Books. ISBN 978-1883523404. 

Ebemsidee[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

  1. ↑ Discrimination – Employment Laws. National Conference of State Legislatures (27 July 2015). Retrieved on 25 April 2020.
  2. ↑ Age Discrimination. U.S. Equal Opportunity Commission. Retrieved on 25 April 2020.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Larson (25 July 2016). Age Discrimination Law. ExpertLaw. Archived from the original on 29 September 2017. Retrieved on 28 September 2017.
  4. ↑ Workplace Age Discrimination Still Flourishes in America (en). AARP (2019-12-30). Retrieved on 2022-09-27.
  5. ↑ 15 U.S. Code § 1691 - Scope of prohibition. Legal Information Institute. Cornell Law School. Retrieved on 6 April 2018.
  6. ↑ Dlabay (2009). Intro to Business. Mason, Ohio: South-Western Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-538-44561-0. “The Equal Credit Opportunity Act prohibits creditors from denying a person credit because of age, race, sex, or marital status.” 
  7. ↑ Fact Sheet: Age Discrimination. U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Retrieved on 2 May 2020.
  8. ↑ Age Discrimination: How to File a Complaint. Division of Human Rights. New York State. Archived from the original on 10 June 2021. Retrieved on 14 February 2022.
  9. ↑ Age Discrimination - Your Rights. Office of the Attorney General. State of New Jersey (25 March 2015). Retrieved on 14 February 2022.
  10. ↑ K Barry. Timeline of Discrimination. Femininity in Flight. Archived from the original on 26 August 2016. Retrieved on 6 August 2015.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Stassen-Berger. "Minnesota judges aren't making a fuss about retirement rule", Pioneer Press, July 7, 2015. Retrieved on December 28, 2015.
  12. ↑ Weinberg (2013). "The Impact of Uncapping of Mandatory Retirement on Postsecondary Institutions". Educational Researcher 42 (6): 338–348. DOI:10.3102/0013189X13497993. 
  13. ↑ Sanjek, Roger (2009). Gray Panthers. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 185.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 "S.2884 — 99th Congress (1985–1986)". United States Congress. October 16, 1986.
  15. ↑ Youth & Labor – Age Requirements, US Department of Labor
  16. ↑ Child Labor Provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) for Nonagricultural Occupations | U.S. Department of Labor.
  17. ↑ Id. Paragraph 24
  18. ↑ Id. Paragraph 25
  19. ↑ O'Connor (July 25, 2016). Hazen Paper v. Biggins, 507 U.S. 604 (1993).. LII / Legal Information Institute. Retrieved on August 26, 2020.
  20. ↑ Hazen Paper Co. v. Biggins – Case Brief Summary (Supreme Court). Lawpipe. Retrieved on August 26, 2020.
  21. ↑ Hazen Paper Co. v. Biggins, 507 U.S. 604 (1993). Justia Law (August 19, 2020). Retrieved on August 26, 2020.
  22. ↑ Feder. The Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA): A Legal Overview. Congressional Research Service, June 23, 2010, p. 2. Archived from the original on 5 July 2011. Retrieved on 3 November 2011.
  23. ↑ Greenhouse. "A Supreme Court Victory for Older Workers", New York Times, June 20, 2008. Retrieved on March 1, 2012.
  24. ↑ Garden (2020-01-08). Argument preview: What counts as discrimination "based on" age?. SCOTUSBlog. Retrieved on 2020-01-16.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Supreme Court to determine whether 'but-for' causation required in federal-sector ADEA claims. Employment Law Daily (2019-07-02). Archived from the original on 2019-07-07. Retrieved on 2020-01-16.
  26. ↑ Barnes (2019-10-04). High Court To Address The Muddled Mess Of The Age Discrimination In Employment Act. Forbes. Retrieved on 2020-01-15.
  27. ↑ Moyler (2020-01-14). What Wednesday's Supreme Court Case Could Mean For Age Discrimination in the workplace. Newsweek. Retrieved on 2020-01-16.
  28. ↑ California Enacts Law Requiring IMDb to Remove Actor Ages on Request. The Hollywood Reporter (24 September 2016). Retrieved on 15 November 2016.
  29. ↑ Judge Pauses Enforcement of IMDb Age Censorship Law. The Hollywood Reporter (22 February 2017). Retrieved on 23 February 2017.
  30. ↑ Pedersen. "California's IMDb Age Law Violates First Amendment, Federal Court Rules; SAG-AFTRA "Extremely Disappointed" – Update", Deadline, 20 February 2018. Retrieved on 2018-02-21. (in en-US)
  31. ↑ Federal Workers Can Sue Over 'Any' Age Bias, Justices Rule. Law360 (2020-04-06). Retrieved on 2020-04-06.
  32. ↑ Morrissey-Berru v. Our Lady of Guadalupe School, 769 Fed. Appx 460 (9th Cir 2019).
  33. ↑ Liptak. "Job Bias Laws do Not Protect Teachers in Catholic Schools, Supreme Court Rules", The New York Times, 8 July 2020.
  34. ↑ United States – Older Americans Amendments of 1975. Public Law 94-134 (H.R. 3922).. www.ilo.org. Retrieved on 22 April 2018.
  35. ↑ (1978) "Older Americans Amendments of 1975 (A Compilation of Public Law 94-135, Accompanying Reports, and Related Acts) V. 1". Older Americans Amendments of 1975 (A Compilation of Public Law 94-135, Accompanying Reports, and Related Acts) 1. Retrieved on 22 April 2018. 
  36. ↑ Neale, Thomas H., "Lowering the Voting Age was not a New Idea", in Amendment XXVI Lowering the Voting Age, ed. Engdahl, Sylvia (New York: Greenhaven Press, 2010), 36–37.
  37. ↑ University of California, Santa Barbara. Statement on Signing the Voting Rights Act Amendments of 1970. presidency.ucsb.edu.
  38. ↑ Educational Broadcasting Corporation (2006). Majority Rules: Oregon v. Mitchell (1970). PBS.
  39. ↑ 18 for Georgia and Kentucky, 19 for Alaska and 20 for Hawaii
  40. ↑ Neale, Thomas H. The Eighteen Year Old Vote: The Twenty-Sixth Amendment and Subsequent Voting Rates of Newly Enfranchised Age Groups. 1983.
  41. ↑ Tokaji (2006). "Intent and Its Alternatives: Defending the New Voting Rights Act". Alabama Law Review 58. Retrieved on July 29, 2015. 
  42. ↑ Making Civics Real: Workshop 2: Essential Readings. learner.org. Retrieved on 29 October 2015.
  43. ↑ Nasaw, David. (1999) "Ch. 3: Youse an' yer noble scrap: On strike with the Newsboy Legion in 1899." in Big Town, Big Time. New York: New York Daily News. p. 9.
  44. ↑ Mott, F.L. (2000) American Journalism. New York: Routledge. p. 598.
  45. ↑ Eleanor Roosevelt, "Why I Still Believe in the Youth Congress," in New Deal Network: Selected Writings of Eleanor Roosevelt, originally published in Liberty, (April 1940): 30–32.. Archived from the original on 2016-10-06. Retrieved on 2005-07-11.
  46. ↑ Kuhn, M., Long, C. and Quinn, L. (1991) No Stone Unturned: the Life and Times of Maggie Kuhn. Ballantine Books.
  47. ↑ Kiger (1 May 2003). Maggie Kuhn. AARP. Archived from the original on 25 July 2020. Retrieved on 2 May 2020.
  48. ↑ About Us. Gray Panthers Nyc (2018-08-27). Archived from the original on 2020-02-21. Retrieved on 2020-04-25.
  49. ↑ Ready to Serve.
  50. ↑ Amati. "National OWL disbands, local chapter to continue", Hyde Park Herald, 2017-03-15. Retrieved on 2017-03-28.
  51. ↑ Finding Aid for the Old Lesbians Organizing for Change records 1986-1992 LSC.2203. oac.cdlib.org.
  52. ↑ Old Lesbians Organizing for Change Records. Archived from the original on 11 September 2015. Retrieved on 27 March 2015.
  53. ↑ Americans for a Society Free from Age Restrictions Articles of Incorporation. ASFAR (2006). Archived from the original on 9 June 2007.
  54. ↑ National Youth Rights Association Articles of Incorporation (Partial). National Youth Rights Association (2001). Archived from the original on 2012-02-25. Retrieved on 2022-09-27.
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