Oghere Mmiri

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Olulu mmiri nke Ọdọ Mmiri Uhie na Croatia

Olulu mmiri bụ oghere ma ọ bụ oghere dị nala nke ụdị ọdịda nke elu ya kpatara. A naeji okwu ahụ eme ihe mgbe ụfọdụ iji zoo aka na doline, oghere ndị a naakpọkwa vrtače na shakeholes, na oghere ebe mmiri dị nelu naabanye nime ụzọ ndị dị nokpuru ala a maara dị ka ponor, oghere swallow ma ọ bụ swallet.[1][2][3][4] Cenote bụ ụdị olulu mmiri nke naekpughe mmiri dị n'okpuru ala.[4] Mmiri na mmiri naasọba bụ okwu ndị ọzọ maka ebe ndị naewepụ mmiri nelu, ikekwe site na ịbanye nime ala ma ọ bụ nkume dara ada.[2]

Ihe ka ọtụtụ nime sinkholes naakpata usoro karst - mmebi nke nkume carbonate, ọdịda ma ọ bụ usoro mbuze.[1][5] Sinkholes naadịkarị okirikiri ma dịgasị iche iche nibu site na iri ruo ọtụtụ narị mita ma nobosara na omimi, ma dịgasịa iche nụdị site na efere ndị dị nala ruo noghere ndị dị nakụkụ nkume. Oghere nwere ike ịpụta nke nta nke nta ma ọ bụ na mberede, a naahụkwa ya nụwa niile.[2][1]

Ọzụzụ[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Olulu mmiri dị nso nOké Osimiri Nwụrụ Anwụ, nke e mepụtara mgbe nnu dị nokpuru ala naagbaze site na mmiri dị ọcha, nihi na mmiri naaga nihu naada.
Olulu mmiri dara na Chinchón, Spain.

Usoro okike[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Olulu mmiri nwere ike ijide mmiri naagba ọsọ ma ọ bụ mmiri kwụ ọtọ, mana ọ pụkwara ịpụta nebe dị elu na ebe kpọrọ nkụ nebe ụfọdụ. Olulu mmiri nke naejide mmiri nwere ike ijide ya na nnukwu ọgba limestone. Ọgba ndị a nwere ike ịba nakụkụ osimiri ndị buru ibu.[6][7]

Ọdịdị nke sinkholes naagụnye usoro okike nke erosion ma ọ bụ nke nta nke nta wepụ ala naagbaze (dị ka limestone) site na mmiri naagbapụta, ọdịda nke elu ọgba, ma ọ bụ mbelata nke tebụl mmiri. [1] Sinkholes naemekarị site na usoro nke suffosion.[8][9] Dịka ọmụmaatụ, mmiri dị nokpuru ala nwere ike ịgbaze carbonate cement naejikọta ụmụ irighiri nkume ma wepụ ụmụ irighari ndị ahụ, jiri nwayọọ nwayọọ mepụta oghere.

Mgbe ụfọdụ, olulu mmiri nwere ike igosi oghere a naahụ anya nime ọgba dị nokpuru. Nihe banyere nnukwu sinkholes, dị ka Minyé sinkhole na Papua New Guinea ma ọ bụ Cedar Sink na Mammoth Cave National Park na Kentucky, enwere ike ịhụ iyi ma ọ bụ osimiri dị n'okpuru ala ya site n'otu akụkụ gaa n'akụkụ nke ọzọ.

Sinkholes bụ ihe a na-ahụkarị ebe nkume dị nokpuru ala bụ limestone ma ọ bụ nkume carbonate ndị ọzọ, ala nnu, ma ọ bụ na nkume ndị ọzọ a naagbaze agbaze, dị ka gypsum, nke nwere ike ịgbaze nuzọ okike site na mmiri dị nime ala.[10] Sinkholes naapụta na sandstone na quartzite ala.

Ka nkume ahụ naagbaze, oghere na ọgba naetolite nokpuru ala. Olulu mmiri ndị a nwere ike ịbụ ihe dị egwu, nihi na ala dị nelu naanọkarị ruo mgbe nkwado zuru ezu. Mgbe ahụ, ọdịda mberede nke ala nwere ike ime.

Ihe ndị dị na mbara igwe[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Nụbọchị nke abụọ nọnwa Julaị nafọ 2015, ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị kọrọ na oghere ndị naarụ ọrụ, ndị metụtara ọdịda nke olulu mmiri na ikekwe jikọtara ya na mgbawa, achọtara na comet 67P / Churyumov-Gerasimenko site na nyocha mbara igwe Rosetta.[11][12]

Usoro aka mere[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

 

Nkwada nke mmiri ozuzo naagbapụta nokporo ụzọ ma naebute ala nime paịpụ nsị gbawara agbawa.

Nkwada, nke a naakpọkarị sinkholes, naemekwa n'ihi ọrụ mmadụ, dị ka ọdịda nke ebe a na-egwupụta ihe na nchekwa nnu nime ụlọ nnu nebe ndị dị ka Louisiana, Mississippi na Texas, na United States of America. Nozuzu, ọdịda naeme n'obodo ukwu nihi nkwụsị mmiri ma ọ bụ ọdịda nke nsị mgbe ọkpọkọ ochie naahapụ. Ha nwekwara ike ime site na ịdọrọ mmiri nokpuru ala na mmiri dị n'okpuru.

Oghere nwekwara ike ịpụta mgbe a gbanwere usoro mmiri naadọba mmiri ma mepụta usoro mmiri ọhụrụ. Ụfọdụ sinkholes naapụta mgbe a na-agbanwe ala, dị ka mgbe a naemepụta ọdọ mmiri na ọdọ mmiri naechekwa mmiri; ịdị arọ nke ihe ọhụrụ ahụ nwere ike ime ka elu ụlọ nke oghere ma ọ bụ oghere dị nokpuru ala daa, naakpata mmepe nke sinkhole.

Nchịkọta[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Olulu mmiri[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Ngwọta ma ọ bụ ịgbaze sinkholes naemepụta ebe mmiri naagbaze limestone nokpuru ihe mkpuchi ala. Dissolution naeme ka oghere okike dị na nkume dị ka nkwonkwo, ọkpụkpụ, na ihe ndina. Ala naagbadata nime oghere ndị buru ibu naeme ka obere ndagwurugwu dị n'elu ala.[13]

USGS dissolution sinkhole.
Ugboro abụọ nke USGS.

Olulu mmiri naekpuchi ala[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

A naemepụta oghere ndị dị nokpuru ala ebe oghere dị nime limestone dị nala naenye ohere ka ala dịkwuo ala iji mepụta nnukwu ndagwurugwu.[13]

USGS cover-subsidence sinkhole.
Olulu mmiri nke USGS.

Olulu mmiri naada[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Olulu mmiri naada ma ọ bụ "ụda" naemepụta ebe ọtụtụ ala naagbadata nime oghere dị na limestone nke na ala naada. Nkwada elu nwere ike ime na mberede ma kpatara mmebi ọdachi. Ọgba mmiri ọhụrụ nwekwara ike ịpụta mgbe ọrụ mmadụ naagbanwe usoro mmiri na mpaghara karst.[13]

USGS cover-subsidence sinkhole.
Olulu mmiri nke USGS.

Ọgba mmiri ndị a na-akpọ pseudokarst[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Pseudokarst sinkholes yiri karst sinkholas mana usoro ndị ọzọ naabụghị nke okike nke nkume mejupụtara ya: 4[14] 

Ọgba mmiri naagba ọsọ nke mmadụ[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Four panels illustrate the growth of soil cavities above a rock cavity. Rising water softens soil. Downward moving water carries softened soil down into rock cavity.
Ihe omume ndị mmadụ mere na mgbanwe ala nke naakpata mgbanwe nke mmiri naeme ka ọgba aghara naada ngwa ngwa

U.S. Geological Survey naekwu na "Ọ bụ echiche naatụ egwu iche nechiche ala dị nokpuru ụkwụ gị ma ọ bụ ụlọ naada na mberede ma naemepụta nnukwu oghere nala".[13] Ọrụ ụmụ mmadụ nwere ike ime ka ọdịda nke karst sinkholes dị ngwa, naakpata ọdịda nime afọ ole na ole nke gaagbanwe nime ọtụtụ puku afọ nokpuru ọnọdụ okike.: 2: 1 na 92 Mmiri ọdịda ala, nke a naakọwa site na ọdịda nke oghere dị nime ala nke mepụtara ebe ala na-adaba nime oghere nkume dị nokpuru, naeweta nnukwu ihe ize ndụ na ihe onwunwe.[15][16][14] Mgbanwe nke ọkwa mmiri naeme ka usoro ọdịda a dị ngwa. Mgbe mmiri naarịgo site na oghere dị na nkume, ọ naebelata ịdị n'otu nke ala. Ka oge naaga, ka mmiri naagbadata, ala dị nro na-agbanye nime oghere nkume. Mmiri naasọ nime ọwara karst naebupụ ala, naegbochi ala ịba nime oghere nkume ma naekwe ka usoro ọdịda gaa nihu: 52-53[17] 

Igwe mmiri naakpata naeme ebe ọrụ mmadụ na-agbanwe otú mmiri dị nelu si eme ka mmiri dị nokpuru ala. Ọtụtụ sinkholes sitere na mmadụ naeme ebe a naemetụta ihe okike naagbanye mmiri ma naagbakọta mmiri nelu. Ihe omume ndị nwere ike ime ka olulu mmiri daa ngwa ngwa gụnyere iwepụ osisi, ịdọrọ ọwa, ịtọ paịpụ, nsị, eriri mmiri, mmiri ozuzo, na igwu egwu. Ihe omume ndị a nwere ike ịbawanye mmegharị mmiri naagbadata karịa ọnụego okike nke mmiri dị nokpuru ala.: 26-29 Mmụba nke mmiri naesi n'elu okporo ụzọ, elu ụlọ, na ebe a naadọba ụgbọala naeme ka ọgba aghara nke mmadụ kpatara: 8[15][14] 

Ụfọdụ sinkholes naebute akara ịdọ aka ná ntị, dị ka oghere, mkpọtụ, ma ọ bụ mkpọtụ, mana ndị ọzọ naetolite na obere ma ọ bụ enweghị ịdọ akaebe.: 32-34 Otú ọ dị, a ghọtara mmepe karst nke ọma, na njirimara ebe kwesịrị ekwesị nwere ike izere ọdachi karst.[15] Nihi ya, ọtụtụ ọdachi sinkhole bụ ndị a na-ahụ anya na ndị a na'egbochi karịa "omume Chineke".: xii: 17 na 104 American Society of Civil Engineers ekwuputala na ikike maka ọdịda sinkhole gaabụ akụkụ nke atụmatụ iji ala eme ihe na mpaghara karst.[18][14] Ebe ọgba aghara nke ihe owuwu nwere ike ịkpata ọnwụ, a gaeme ka ọha na eze mara ihe ize ndụ: 88[17] 

Ebe ndị nwere ike ịdaba na sinkhole bụ ebe enwere nnukwu njupụta nke sinkholes dị ugbu a. Ọnụnọ ha naegosi na ala nwere usoro ọgba ma ọ bụ oghere ndị ọzọ naadịghị akwụsi ike.[19] Ebe nnukwu oghere dị na limestone nnukwu ọdịda nwere ike ime, dị ka Winter Park, Florida sinkhole collapse.: 91-92 Ntuziaka maka iji ala eme ihe na mpaghara karst kwesịrị izere ma ọ bụ belata mgbanwe nke ala na mmiri ozuzo.: 36[14][15] 

Ebe ọ bụ na mgbanwe nke ọkwa mmiri naeme ka ọgba aghara daa ngwa ngwa, a ghaghị ime ihe iji belata mgbanwe nke ọkwa ማይ. Enwere ike ịchọpụta ma zere ebe ndị nwere ike ịdaba na sinkhole.: 88 Nógbè karst, nyocha ntọala ọdịnala (nke nwere ikike na ebe obibi) nke ikike ala nwere ịkwado ihe owuwu ga-agbakwunye site na nyocha nke ebe geotechnical maka oghere na ntụpọ dị nokpuru nkume.: 113 Ebe ọ bụ na ala / nkume dị nógbè ndị karst adịghị mma, ọnụ ọgụgụ nke ihe nlele nokpuru ala (ọhịa na isi ihe n'ọ́tụ̀ ọ bụla) achọrọ naadịkarị ukwuu karịa nóebe ndị naabụghị karst: 98-99[17][17][17] 

More than three acres of trees are missing in a forest after collapsing into a funnel shaped pit with water at the bottom.
Ihe karịrị hekta atọ nke oké ọhịa na mberede furu efu n'ime olulu mmiri a "December Giant" na Montevallo, Alabama, USA.

Nafọ 2015, U.S. Geological Survey mere atụmatụ na ọnụahịa maka nrụzi nke mmebi sitere na usoro metụtara karst dị ka ọ dịkarịa ala $ 300 nde kwa afọ nime afọ 15 gara aga, mana o kwuru na nke a nwere ike ịbụ nnukwu ihe naezughị ezu dabere na data ezughi oke.[20] Ọnụ ọgụgụ kachasị ukwuu nke mmebi nke karst sinkhole na United States naeme na Florida, Texas, Alabama, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, na Pennsylvania.[21] Olulu mmiri kachasị ukwuu na nso nso a na USA nwere ike ịbụ nke e guzobere na 1972 na Montevallo, Alabama nihi na mmadụ mere ka mmiri dị ala nebe a naegwupụta nkume dị nso. "December Giant" ma ọ bụ "Golly Hole" sinkhole a naatụle 130 m (425 ft) ogologo, 105 m (350 ft) obosara na 45 m (150 ft) omimi: 1-2: 61-63[15][17][22] 

Ebe ndị ọzọ nwere nnukwu ihe ize ndụ karst gụnyere Ebro Basin n'ebe ugwu Spain; agwaetiti Sardinia; ala mmiri nke Ịtali; mpaghara Chalk nebe ndịda England; Sichuan, China; Jamaica; France; Croatia[23]; Bosnia na Herzegovina; Slovenia; na Russia, ebe otu ụzọ nụzọ atọ nke ala niile dị nokpuru karst.[24][25]

Ihe mere[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Mmiri niile na-asọ nelu Osimiri Alapaha dị nso na Jennings, Florida nabanye nime olulu mmiri naeduga na mmiri dị nokpuru ala nke Floridan Aquifer
Gouffre de Padirac na France a maara kemgbe 3rd c. ma nyochaa na 1889
Olulu mmiri dị na Florida n'afọ 2015

Sinkholes naemekarị na ala karst. [1] Ala karst nwere ike ịnwe ọtụtụ puku sinkholes nime obere ebe, naenye ala ahụ ọdịdị akara. Olulu mmiri ndị a naagbanye mmiri niile, nihi ya, ọ bụ naanị osimiri ndị dị n'okpuru ala dị nebe ndị a. Ihe atụ nke ala karst nwere ọtụtụ nnukwu sinkholes gụnyere Ugwu Khammouan (Laos) na Mamo Plateau (Papua New Guinea).[26][27] Nnukwu sinkholes a maara nke e guzobere na sandstone bụ Sima Humboldt na Sima Martel na Venezuela.[27]

Ụfọdụ sinkholes naemepụta nime nnukwu okpokoro nke homogeneous limestone. Ọdịdị ha naeme ka ọ dịkwuo mfe site na nnukwu mmiri ozuzo, nke mmiri ozuzo dị ukwuu naakpata; mmiri ozuzo ndị dị otú ahụ naakpatakarị mmepụta nke nnukwu sinkholes na Ugwu Nakanaï, na agwaetiti New Britain na Papua New Guinea.[28] Osimiri ndị dị ike nokpuru ala nwere ike ịpụta na njikọ dị netiti limestone na nkume naadịghị agwakọta, naemepụta nnukwu oghere nokpuru.

Nọnọdụ ndị dị otú ahụ, nnukwu sinkholes a maara nụwa emeela, dị ka 662 mita miri emi (2,172 ) Xiaozhai Tiankeng (Chongqing, China), nnukwu sótanos na Querétaro na San Luis Potosí steeti na Mexico na ndị ọzọ.[27][29]

Usoro ndị a naadịghị ahụkebe emeela nnukwu sinkholes nke Sistema Zacatón na Tamaulipas (Mexico), ebe ihe karịrị sinkholes 20 na usoro karst ndị ọzọ ejirila mmiri ọkụ naekpo ọkụ, acidic n'okpuru ala kpụọ.[30][31] Nke a emeela ka ọ bụghị naanị mmepụta nke olulu mmiri jupụtara n'ụwa - Zacatón - kamakwa usoro pụrụ iche nke travertine sedimentation nakụkụ elu nke olulu, naeduga na akara nke olulu ndị a na mkpuchi travertine.[31]

A maara steeti Florida dị na North America maka inwe ọgba mmiri naada ugboro ugboro, ọkachasị nakụkụ etiti nke steeti ahụ. Limestone dị nokpuru ebe ahụ dị site na nde afọ 15 ruo 25. Nakụkụ steeti ahụ, sinkholes dị ụkọ ma ọ bụ naadịghị adị; limestone dị ihe dị ka afọ 120,000.[32]

Mpaghara Murge dị nebe ndịda Ịtali nwekwara ọtụtụ olulu mmiri. Enwere ike ịmepụta oghere n'ime ọdọ mmiri naejigide mmiri site na nnukwu mmiri ozuzo.[33]

Nala oké osimiri Arctic, ikuku methane emeela ka nnukwu olulu mepụta.[34][35]

Ojiji mmadụ naeji ya eme ihe[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

A naeji oghere eme ihe ruo ọtụtụ narị afọ dị ka ebe a naekpofu ahịhịa maka ụdị ihe mkpofu dị iche iche. Nsonaazụ nke a bụ mmetọ nke ihe onwunwe mmiri dị nokpuru ala, naenwe mmetụta siri ike na ahụike nebe ndị dị otú ahụ.[36][37]

Mmepeanya Maya naeji sinkholes na Yucatán Peninsula (nke a maara dị ka cenotes) dị ka ebe a naetinye ihe ndị dị oké ọnụ ahịa na àjà mmadụ.[38]

Mgbe olulu mmiri dị omimi ma ọ bụ jikọọ ya na ọgba, ha nwere ike inye ihe ịma aka maka ndị nwere ahụmahụ ma ọ bụ, mgbe mmiri jupụtara, ndị naegwu mmiri. Ụfọdụ nime ndị kachasị mma bụ Zacatón cenote na Mexico (oghere mmiri jupụtara nụwa), oghere Boesmansgat na South Africa, Sarisariñama tepuy na Venezuela, Sótano del Barro na Mexico, na nobodo Mount Gambier, South Australia. A maara oghere ndị naetolite na coral reefs na agwaetiti ndị naadaba na nnukwu omimi dị ka oghere naacha anụnụ anụnụ ma naaghọkarị ebe a ma ama naegwu mmiri.[39]Àtụ:Clear left

Aha obodo[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Great Blue Hole dị nso na Ambergris Caye, Belize

Nnukwu oghere ndị a naadịghị ahụkebe amarala ndị obodo ahụ nke ọma kemgbe oge ochie. Noge ndị a, a naachịkọta sinkholes ma naakpọ aha na aha pụrụ iche ma ọ bụ aha nkịtị. E depụtara ụfọdụ ihe atụ nke aha ndị dị otú ahụ n'okpuru ebe a.[40]

  • Aven - Nebe ndịda France aha a pụtara ọgba nasụsụ Occitan.
  • Oghere ojii (ekwesịghị ịgbagwoju anya na oghere ojii nke mbara igwe) - Okwu a naezo aka nìgwè nke oghere pụrụ iche, gburugburu, jupụtara na mmiri na Bahamas. Ọdịdị ndị a yiri ka mmiri oké osimiri naagbaze nime apịtị carbonate site nelu. Ọchịchịrị nke mmiri naesite na mkpuchi nke microorganisms phototropic nke naelekwasị anya na mkpuchi, naacha odo odo na 15 ruo 20 m (49 ruo 66 ) omimi; mkpuchi a "naeri" ìhè. Metabolism na okpokoro nke microorganisms naakpata okpomọkụ nke mmiri. Otu nime ha bụ Black Hole nke Andros.[41]
  • Blue holes - A naenye aha a na mbụ na omimi sinkholes nke Bahamas mana a naejikarị ya eme ihe maka olulu mmiri ọ bụla jupụtara na nkume carbonate. Aha ahụ sitere na ụcha naacha anụnụ anụnụ nke mmiri na sinkholes ndị a, nke mmiri dị elu na nnukwu omimi nke sinkholes mepụtara; naanị ụcha naacha anụnụ uhie nke ụyọkọ a naahụ anya nwere ike ịbanye nime omimi dị otú ahụ ma laghachi mgbe ọ tụgharịrị.
  • Cenotes - Nke a naezo aka na sinkholes jupụtara na mmiri na Yucatán Peninsula, Belize na mpaghara ndị ọzọ. Ọtụtụ cenotes emeela na limestone nke a naetinye noké osimiri ndị naadịghị omimi nke mmetụta nke Chicxulub meteorite mepụtara.
  • Sótanos - A naenye ọtụtụ nnukwu olulu aha a n'ọtụtụ steeti nke Mexico.
  • Tiankengs - Ndị a bụ nnukwu olulu mmiri, nke na-adịkarị omimi ma obosara karịa 250 m (820 ft), nke nwere ọtụtụ mgbidi kwụ ọtọ, nke a na-emekarị site na ọdịda nke ọgba. Okwu a pụtara oghere igwe na Chinese; ọtụtụ n'ime ụdị oghere mmiri a kachasị ukwuu dị na China: 64[18] 
  • Tomo - A naeji okwu a eme ihe na mba karst nke New Zealand iji kọwaa oghere ite.[42]

Ọkpụkpọ pseudokarst[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Oghere mmiri nke Guatemala City nke afọ 2010 malitere na mberede na Mee nke afọ ahụ; a naata nnukwu mmiri ozuzo sitere na Tropical Storm Agatha na usoro mmiri dị njọ ụta maka okike ya. O riri ụlọ nwere okpukpu atọ na ụlọ; ọ tụrụ ihe dịka 20 (66 ft) nobosara na 30 m (98 ) nomimi. [1] E guzobere oghere yiri nke ahụ na Febụwarị 2007.[43]

Nnukwu oghere a kwụ ọtọ abụghị ezigbo oghere, ebe ọ naemeghị site na mgbawa nke limestone, dolomite, marble, ma ọ bụ nkume ọ bụla ọzọ naagbaze na mmiri.[44][45] Kama nke ahụ, ha bụ ihe atụ nke "pseudokarst" nke e mepụtara site na ọdịda nke nnukwu oghere ndị mepụtara na ebe na-adịghị ike, nke naagbawa agbawa nke Quaternary dị nokpuru obodo ahụ. Ọ bụ ezie na ọ naadịghị ike ma naagbawa agbawa, ihe ndị a naagbọpụta ọkụ nwere njikọ zuru ezu iji nye ha ohere iguzo nihu kwụ ọtọ ma mepụta nnukwu oghere dị nokpuru ala nime ha. Usoro a naakpọ "ụgbọ ala" bu ụzọ mepụta nnukwu oghere n'okpuru ala, ka mmiri si na mmiri naagbapụta na-agafe nime ebe ndị a naagbọpụta ọkụ ma jiri ígwè naasacha ihe ndị dị mma nke ugwu mgbawa nime ha, wee jiri nwayọọ nwayọọ naagbaze ma wepụ ihe ndị siri ike. Nikpeazụ, oghere ndị a dị nokpuru ala buru ibu nke na elu ụlọ ha dara iji mepụta nnukwu oghere.[44]

Oghere okpueze[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Oghere okpueze bụ ọdịda nihi ọrụ mmadụ nokpuru ala, dị ka igwu ala na oghere ndị agha.[46][47] Ihe atụ gụnyere, ihe atụ ndị dị nelu oghere Agha Ụwa Mbụ na Ypres, Belgium; nakụkụ ebe a naegwupụta ihe na Nitra, Slovakia; ebe a naebe a naegwute nkume limestone na Dudley, England; na nelu ebe a na naegwe ihe ochie na Magheracloone, Ireland.[48][48][49][47]

Ihe atụ ndị a ma ama[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Bimmah ma ọ bụ Falling Star Sinkhole na Oman

N'Africa[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

  • Boesmansgat - olulu mmiri dị ọcha nke South Africa, ihe dịka 290 m (950 ) miri emi.[50]
  • Ọdọ Mmiri Kashiba - Zambia. Ihe dị ka hekta 3.5 (8.6 acres) na mpaghara na ihe dị ka 100 m (330 ) omimi.

N'Eshia[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

  • Blue Hole - Dahab, Egypt. Olulu mmiri gbara gburugburu ma ọ bụ oghere naacha anụnụ anụnụ, 130 m (430 ) miri emi. Ọ naagụnye ụzọ naeduga nOké Osimiri Uhie na 60 m (200 ), nke bụ ebe ọtụtụ nnwere onwe na mgbalị scuba, nke ikpeazụ naegbu egbu.[51]
  • Akhayat sinkhole dị na Mersin Province, Turkey. Ọdịdị ya dị ihe dị ka 150 (490 ft) nobosara na omimi kachasị nke 70 m (230 ).
  • Olulu mmiri nke Barhout - Yemen. Ọgba dị omimi dị mita 112 (367 ) na Al-Mahara, Yemen.
  • Bimmah Sinkhole (Hawiyat Najm, Falling Star Sinkhole, Dibab Sinkhole) - Oman, ihe dịka 30 m (98 ) miri.[52][53]
  • Olulu mmiri Baatara na nsụda mmiri Baatara dị nakụkụ Tannourine na Lebanọn
  • Dashiwei Tiankeng na Guangxi, China, dị 613 m (2,011 ) miri emi, nwere mgbidi kwụ ọtọ. Nala bụ mpaghara ọhịa dịpụrụ adịpụ nke nwere ụdị dị iche iche dị ụkọ.[54]
  • Dragon Hole, nke dị nebe ndịda nke Paracel Islands, bụ olulu mmiri kachasị omimi nokpuru mmiri nụwa. Ọ dị 300.89 m (987.2 ) miri emi.[55][56]
  • Shaanxi tiankeng cluster, na Daba Mountains nke ndịda Shaanxi, China, naekpuchi ebe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ square kilomita 5019 na nnukwu olulu mmiri bụ mita 520 n'obosara na mita 320 omimi.[57][58]
  • Teiq Sinkhole (Taiq, Teeq, Tayq) na Oman bụ otu n'ime nnukwu sinkholes nụwa site na oke: 90,000,000 m (3.2×109 ). Ọtụtụ wadis na-adịgide adịgide na-ada na nsụda mmiri dị egwu nime oghere miri emi 250 m (820 ).[59]
  • Xiaozhai Tiankeng - Chongqing, China. Oghere mmiri nwere oghere abụọ nwere mgbidi kwụ ọtọ, 662 m (2,172 ) miri emi.[60]

Na Caribbean[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

  • Dean's Blue Hole - Bahamas. Olulu mmiri nke abụọ a maara nokpuru oké osimiri, omimi 203 m (666 ). Ebe a ma ama maka asọmpi ụwa nke free diving, yana ntụrụndụ diving.

Na Central America[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

  • Great Blue Hole - Belize. Ọmarịcha, oghere dị gburugburu, 124 m (407 ) miri. Ihe ndị a naadịghị ahụkebe bụ stalactites naagbadata na omimi, nke naegosi ebe mbụ nke ọkwa limestone dị mgbe olulu mmiri a dị n'elu oke osimiri.
  • 2007 Olulu mmiri nke Guatemala City
  • 2010 Mmiri ozuzo nke Guatemala City

Na Europe[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

  • Hranice Abyss, nke dị na mpaghara Moravia nke Czech Republic, bụ ọgba kachasị omimi n'okpuru mmiri nụwa. Ogologo ala a kwadoro (dị ka 27 Septemba 2016) bụ 473 m (404 m n'okpuru ọkwa mmiri).
  • Pozzo del Merro, nso Rome, Ịtali. Na ala nke olulu conical 80 (260 ft), na dịka 400 m (1,300 ) miri emi, ọ bụ otu nime olulu mmiri miri emi n'ụwa (lee Sótano del Barro n'okpuru).
  • Ọdọ Mmiri Uhie - Croatia. Ihe dị ka 530 (1,740 ft) oghere miri emi nke nwere ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ mgbidi kwụ ọtọ, nwere ihe dị ka 280-290 m (920-950 ) ọdọ mmiri miri emi.
  • Ọwara Padirac - France Ọ dị 103 m (338 ) miri emi, na dayameta nke 33 mita (108 ụkwụ). Ndị nleta naagbadata mita 75 site na lift ma ọ bụ steepụ gaa nọdọ mmiri naenye ohere njem ụgbọ mmiri mgbe ha banyere nime usoro ọgba nke nwere osimiri dị nokpuru ala nke dị kilomita 55.
  • Vouliagmeni - Gris. A maara olulu mmiri nke Vouliagmeni dị ka "Olulu Ekwensu", [ odide dị mkpa] nihi na a naewere ya dị ka ihe dị oke egwu. Mmadụ anọ naegwu mmiri anwụọla na ya.[61] Ogologo oimi nke 35.2 m (115 in) na ịbanye n'akụkụ nke 150 m (490 ).
  • Pouldergaderry - Ireland. Olulu mmiri a dị n'obodo Kilderry South dị nso na Milltown, County Kerry na 7.[62]  Sinkhole ahụ, nke dị na mpaghara ebe akwa karst, dị ihe dịka mita 80 (260 ft) na dayameta yana mita 30 (98 ft) miri emi nke nwere ọtụtụ osisi tozuru oke naeto nala nke oghere ahụ. Nogo nke ala gbara ya gburugburu, sinkhole ahụ naekpuchi ihe dịka 1.3 acres. E gosiputara ọnụnọ ya na map Survey Ordnance malitere laa azụ na 1829.

Na North America[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Mexico[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

  • Ọgba nke Swallows - San Luis Potosí. 372 m (1,220 ) miri emi, oghere dị gburugburu nwere mgbidi dị elu.
  • Puebla sinkhole - Santa Maria Zacatepec, Puebla. 120 m (400 ft) n'obosara na 15 m (50 ) omimi, ọ ka na-eto eto ka ọ na-erule June 2021[update].[63]
  • Sima de las Cotorras - Chiapas. 160 m (520 ft) n'obosara, 140 m (460 ) miri emi, na ọtụtụ puku parakeets na-acha akwụkwọ ndụ akwụkwọ ndụ na ihe osise nkume oge ochie.
  • Zacatón - Tamaulipas. Olulu mmiri kacha omimi , 339 m (1,112 ) omimi. [nkọwa ọzọ dị mkpa]

United States[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

  • Amberjack Hole - oghere na-acha anụnụ anụnụ nke dị 48 (30 mi) nụsọ oké osimiri Sarasota, Florida.
  • Bayou Corne sinkhole - Assumption Parish, Louisiana. Ihe dị ka 25 acres na 230 m (750 ) omimi.[64]
  • Blue Hole - Santa Rosa, New Mexico. Ọnụ ụzọ mbata dị nelu bụ naanị 80 feet (24 ) nobosara, ọ naagbasa ruo 130 feet (40 m) nobosara nala.
  • Daisetta Sinkholes - Daisetta, Texas. E epụtara ọtụtụ sinkholes, nke kachasị ọhụrụ na 2008 na oke obosara nke 620 ft (190 ) na oke omimi nke 45 m (150 ).[65][66]
  • Devil's Millhopper - Gainesville, Florida. 35 (120 ) omimi, 500 (150 m) obosara. Isi iyi iri na abụọ, ụfọdụ naahụ anya karịa ndị ọzọ, na-enye ọdọ mmiri dị na ala.[67]
  • Golly Hole ma ọ bụ December Giant - Calera, Alabama. E wepụtara ya nụbọchị nke abụọ nọnwa Disemba afọ 1972. Ihe dị ka 300 site na 325 ft (91 site na 99 ) na 35 (120 ) miri emi.[68]
  • Grassy Cove - Cumberland County, Tennessee. 13.6 km2 (5.3 mi) na mpaghara na 42.7 m (140 in) omimi, National Natural Landmark.[69]
  • Green Banana Hole - oghere naacha anụnụ anụnụ nke dị 80 (50 mi) nụsọ oké osimiri Sarasota, Florida.
  • Gypsum Sinkhole - Utah, na Capitol Reef National Park. Ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ 15 (49 ft) nobosara na ihe dịka 60 m (200 ) omimi.[70]
  • Ọdọ Mmiri Kingsley - Clay County, Florida. 8.1 km2 (2,000 acres) nógbè, 27 m (89 ) miri emi na ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ gburugburu.
  • Ọdọ Mmiri Peigneur - New Iberia, Louisiana. Ogologo oge bụ 3.4 m (11 ft), ugbu a 400 m (1,300 ) na Diamond Crystal Salt Mine collapse.
  • Winter Park Sinkhole - Winter Park, Florida. E wepụtara ya na 8 Mee 1981. Ọ dị ihe dịka 110 (350 ft) nobosara na 25 m (75 ) omimi. Ọ bụ ihe a ma ama dị ka otu nime nnukwu sinkholes naadịbeghị anya na United States. A maara ya ugbu a dị ka Lake Rose.[71]

Na Oceania[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

  • Harwood Hole - Abel Tasman National Park, New Zealand. 183 m (600 ) miri.

Na South America[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

  • Sima Humboldt - Bolívar, Venezuela. Olulu mmiri kachasị ukwuu na sandstone, 314 m (1,030 ) miri emi, na mgbidi kwụ ọtọ. Ọhịa pụrụ iche, nke dịpụrụ adịpụ nala.
  • Nakụkụ ọdịda anyanwụ nke Cerro Duida, Venezuela, e nwere mgbagwoju anya nke canyons nwere sinkholes. Olulu miri kachasị omimi bụ 450 m (1,480 ft) omimi (site na ala kachasị ala n'ime canyon); omimi 950 m (3,120 ).

Hụkwa[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

 

Ihe odide[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Williams (2004). "Dolines", in Gunn: Encyclopedia of Caves and Karst Science (in en). Taylor & Francis, 628–642. ISBN 978-1-57958-399-6. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Kohl (2001). Subsidence and sinkholes in East Tennessee. A field guide to holes in the ground. State of Tennessee. Archived from the original on 14 July 2015. Retrieved on 18 February 2014.
  3. ↑ (2009) in Thomas: The Dictionary of Physical Geography, 3rd, Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1444313161. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Monroe (1970). "A glossary of Karst terminology". U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1899-K. DOI:10.3133/wsp1899k. 
  5. ↑ Caves and karst – dolines and sinkholes. British Geological Survey.
  6. ↑ Breining. "Getting Down and Dirty in an Underground River in Puerto Rico", The New York Times, 5 October 2007. Retrieved on 31 March 2016.
  7. ↑ Palmer (1 January 1991). "Origin and morphology of limestone caves" (in en). Geological Society of America Bulletin 103 (1): 1–21. DOI:<0001:oamolc>2.3.co;2 10.1130/0016-7606(1991)103<0001:oamolc>2.3.co;2. ISSN 0016-7606. 
  8. ↑ Friend (2002). Sinkholes. Pineapple Press Inc. ISBN 978-1-56164-258-8. Retrieved on 7 June 2010. 
  9. ↑ Quarrying and the environment. bgs. Retrieved on 3 June 2018.
  10. ↑ Sinkholes in Washington County. Utah gov Geological Survey. Archived from the original on 23 March 2011.
  11. ↑ Vincent, Jean-Baptiste (2 July 2015). "Large heterogeneities in comet 67P as revealed by active pits from sinkhole collapse". Nature 523 (7558): 63–66. DOI:10.1038/nature14564. PMID 26135448. 
  12. ↑ Ritter. "It's the pits: Comet appears to have sinkholes, study says", AP News, 1 July 2015. Retrieved on 2 July 2015.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 Sinkholes. Water Science School. U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved on 29 May 2019.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 Benson (2015). Site Characterization in Karst and Pseudokarst Terraines: Practical Strategies and Technology for Practicing Engineers, Hydrologists and Geologists. Dordrecht: Springer. DOI:10.1007/978-94-017-9924-9. ISBN 978-94-017-9923-2. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 Newton (1987). "Development of sinkholes resulting from man's activities in the eastern United States", Circular, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 968. U.S. Government Print Office. DOI:10.3133/cir968. 
  16. ↑ Kambesis (2005). "Collapse sinkhole at Dishman Lane, Kentucky", Sinkholes and Subsidence: Karst and Cavernous Rocks in Engineering and Construction. Berlin: Springer. DOI:10.1007/b138363. ISBN 3-540-20725-2. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 Sowers (1996). Building on sinkholes. New York: American Society of Civil Engineers. DOI:10.1061/9780784401767. ISBN 0-7844-0176-4. 
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Waltham (2005). Sinkholes and subsidence: karst and cavernous rocks in engineering and construction, 1st, Berlin [u.a.]: Springer [u.a.]. ISBN 978-3540207252. 
  19. ↑ Doctor. GIS and Spatial Statistical Methods for Determining Sinkhole Potential in Frederick Valley, Maryland, page 100 in Kuniansky, E.L., 2008, U.S. Geological Survey Karst Interest Group Proceedings, Bowling Green, Kentucky, May 27–29, 2008: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2008-5023, 142 p.. U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved on 27 November 2018.
  20. ↑ Weary (2015). in Doctor: The cost of karst subsidence and sinkhole collapse in the United States compared with other natural hazards. University of South Florida. DOI:10.5038/9780991000951. ISBN 978-0-9910009-5-1. Retrieved on 30 May 2019. 
  21. ↑ Kuniansky (2016). "The current status of mapping karst areas and availability of public sinkhole-risk resources in karst terrains of the United States". Hydrogeology Journal 24 (3). DOI:10.1007/s10040-015-1333-3. Retrieved on 5 May 2019. 
  22. ↑ Possibly the nation's largest recent sinkhole – the "December Giant" measuring 425 feet long, 350 feet wide and 150 feet deep – formed in central Alabama.. USGS Denver Library Photographic Collection. U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved on 28 May 2019.
  23. ↑ Parise (2007). "Natural and anthropogenic hazards in karst areas: an introduction". Geological Society, London, Special Publications 279 (1): 1–3. DOI:10.1144/SP279.1. 
  24. ↑ Bonacci (31 March 2006). "Karst flash floods: an example from the Dinaric karst (Croatia)". Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 6 (2): 195–203. DOI:10.5194/nhess-6-195-2006. 
  25. ↑ Tolmachev (2011). "Experience in Collapse Risk Assessment of Building on Covered Karst Landscapes in Russia". Karst Management: 75–102. DOI:10.1007/978-94-007-1207-2_4. 
  26. ↑ What is a sinkhole?. CNC3 (14 March 2016). Retrieved on 31 March 2016.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Largest and most impressive sinkholes of the world. Wondermondo (19 August 2010).
  28. ↑ Naré sinkhole. Wondermondo (5 August 2010).
  29. ↑ Zhu (2006). "Tiankengs in the karst of China". Speleogenesis and Evolution of Karst Aquifers 4: 1–18. ISSN 1814-294X. Retrieved on 23 September 2010. 
  30. ↑ Sistema Zacatón. by Marcus Gary.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Sistema Zacatón. Wondermondo (3 July 2010).
  32. ↑ Vazquez. "The Hole Truth", Florida Today, 29 September 2017, pp. 1A,2A. Retrieved on 29 September 2017.
  33. ↑ William L. Wilson. IDENTIFICATION AND DELINEATION OF SINKHOLE COLLAPSE HAZARDS IN FLORIDA USING GROUND PENETRATING RADAR AND ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY IMAGING. Subsurface Evaluations, Inc..
  34. ↑ Paull (22 March 2022). "Rapid seafloor changes associated with the degradation of Arctic submarine permafrost". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 119 (12): e2119105119. DOI:10.1073/pnas.2119105119. PMID 35286188. 
  35. ↑ Katie Hunt. Holes the size of city blocks are forming in the Arctic seafloor. CNN. Retrieved on 2022-03-15.
  36. ↑ Erchul (1991). "Illegal disposal in sinkholes: The threat and the solution.", Appalachian Karst: Proceedings of the Appalachian Karst Symposium. 1991. National Speleological Society. ISBN 9780961509354. 
  37. ↑ Vesper (2001). "Contaminant transport in karst aquifers.". Theoretical and Applied Karstology 13: 101–111. Retrieved on 22 December 2020. 
  38. ↑ "Haunted" Maya Underwater Cave Holds Human Bones (16 January 2014). Retrieved on 24 June 2019.
  39. ↑ Rock (2007). Diving & Snorkeling Belize, 4th, Footscray, Vic.: Lonely Planet. ISBN 9781740595315. 
  40. ↑ Sinkholes. Wondermondo (19 August 2010).
  41. ↑ Black Hole of Andros. Wondermondo (17 August 2010).
  42. ↑ Subsidence (en-NZ). Waikato Regional Council. Retrieved on 25 January 2018.
  43. ↑ Vidal. "¿Que diablos provoco este escalofriante hoyo?", Las Ultimas Noticias, 2 June 2010. Retrieved on 20 March 2013. (in es)
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Waltham (2008). "Sinkhole hazard case histories in karst terrains". Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology 41 (3): 291–300. DOI:10.1144/1470-9236/07-211. 
  45. ↑ Halliday (2007). "Pseudokarst in the 21st Century". Journal of Cave and Karst Studies 69 (1): 103–113. Retrieved on 24 March 2013. 
  46. ↑ Subsidence Incident | Gyproc. Archived from the original on 2023-09-30. Retrieved on 2023-08-19.
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Hussey (17 April 2020). "Crown hole appears in Magheracloone, Co Monaghan". RTÉ News. 
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 The cricket club that went down the hole (16 October 2017).
  49. ↑ (2015) "The Crater Lakes of Nagyhegyes". Landscapes and Landforms of Hungary – World Geomorphological Landscapes. 
  50. ↑ Beaumont (May–June 2006). "On a timescale for the past million years of human history in central South Africa". South African Journal of Science 102: 217–228. ISSN 0038-2353. 
  51. ↑ Halls (2006). Scuba diving, 1st American, New York: DK Pub.. ISBN 9780756619497. 
  52. ↑ Rajendran (2014). "ASTER mapping of limestone formations and study of caves, springs and depressions in parts of Sultanate of Oman". Environmental Earth Sciences 71 (1): 133–146, figure 9d (page 142), page 144. DOI:10.1007/s12665-013-2419-7. 
  53. ↑ Bimmah sinkhole. Wondermondo (3 February 2013).
  54. ↑ Zhu, Xuewen (2003). 广西乐业大石围天坑群发现探测定义与研究. Nanning, Guangxi, China: Guangxi Scientific and Technical Publishers. ISBN 978-7-80666-393-6. 
  55. ↑ "China Exclusive: South China Sea "blue hole" declared world's deepest", New China, Xinhua.
  56. ↑ "Researchers just discovered the world's deepest underwater sinkhole in the South China Sea", The Washington Post.
  57. ↑ "陕西发现天坑群地质遗迹并发现少见植物和飞猫", Sohu.com Inc..
  58. ↑ 时事新闻--解密汉中天坑群——改写地质历史的世界级"自然博物馆". Hanzhong People's Municipal Government (25 November 2016). Archived from the original on 27 November 2016.
  59. ↑ "Dhofar caves: A tourist's paradise", Muscat Daily, 11 January 2015.
  60. ↑ Zhu (2006). "Tiankeng: definition and description". Speleogenesis and Evolution of Karst Aquifers 4 (1): 1–8, Fig. 4. Structural interpretation of Xiaozhai Tiankeng, page 4. Retrieved on 28 November 2016. 
  61. ↑ Schonauer. "Missing American divers will be laid to rest after 30 years", Stars and Stripes, 21 July 2007. Retrieved on 28 April 2013.
  62. ↑ 52°07'57.5"N 9°44'45.4"W · Kilderry South, Co. Kerry, Ireland. 52°07'57.5"N 9°44'45.4"W · Kilderry South, Co. Kerry, Ireland.
  63. ↑ Guzman (2021-06-10). A sinkhole larger than a football field has appeared in Mexico — and it's still growing (en). TheHill. Retrieved on June 11, 2021.
  64. ↑ Wines. "Ground Gives Way, and a Louisiana Town Struggles to Find Its Footing", New York Times, 25 September 2013. Retrieved on 26 September 2013.
  65. ↑ Horswell. "Daisetta sinkhole still a mystery 8 months after it formed", Houston Chronicle, 5 January 2009. Retrieved on 29 June 2013.
  66. ↑ Blumenthal. "Sinkhole and Town: Now You See It", The New York Times, 9 May 2008. Retrieved on 29 June 2013.
  67. ↑ Devils Millhopper Geological State Park. Floridastateparks.org. Archived from the original on 2 January 2015. Retrieved on 3 May 2014.
  68. ↑ "Nation's largest sinkhole may be near Montevallo" (29 March 1973) The Tuscaloosa News
  69. ↑ Dunigan, Tom. Grassy Cove. Tennessee Landforms. Retrieved on 11 March 2014.
  70. ↑ Cathedral Valley – Capitol Reef National Park. National Park Service, US Dept of Interior. Retrieved on 24 March 2013.
  71. ↑ Huber, Red. "Looking back at Winter Park's famous sinkhole", Orlando Sentinel, 13 November 2012.
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