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Ịgụ maka mkpa pụrụ iche

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Ịgụ maka mkpa pụrụ iche aghọwo ebe na-adọrọ mmasị ka nghọta nke ịgụ ihe emeela ka ọ dị mma nke ukwuu. Ịkụziri ụmụaka nwere mkpa pụrụ iche otu esi agụ ihe abụghị ihe a na-agbaso n'akụkọ ihe mere na mgbe gara-aga n'ihi echiche nke ihe nlereanya njikere ịgụ ihe [1]Ihe nlereanya a na-eche na onye na-agụ ga-amụta ịgụ ihe na usoro dị elu nke mere na a ga-amuta otu nkà tupu á mụta nkà ọzọ (dịka ọmụmaatụ, a pụrụ ịtụ anya na nwatakịrị ga-amụrụ aha mkpụrụedemede na mkpụrụedemede n'usoro ziri ezi tupu a kụziere yá otu esi agụ aha ya). [2]Usoro a na-edugakarị ịkụzi obere nkà nke ịgụ ihe n'ụzọ na-enweghị isi. Ụdị nkuzi a bunyere ụmụ áká ihe ị màkà n'ihu maka ụmụaka ịmụta nkà ndị a, n'ihi yá, ọ naghị aga n'ihu na nkuzi agụmakwụkwọ dị élú ma na-anọgide na-enweta ntụziaka na-ekwesịghị ekwesị (dịka, ịbụ abụ mkpụrụ édémédé).

N'etiti afọ ndị 1970s, ụsoro agụmakwụkwọ gbanwere iji lèkwasị anya na nkà ọrụ nke dị afọ kwesịrị ekwesị maka ndị nwere mkpa dị iche. [3][4]Nke a dụgara n'ịkụzi okwu ana ahụ ányá nke a na-ele anya dị ka ihe dị mkpà màkà itinye áká n'ụlọ akwụkwọ na ọbọdọ (dịka, "ọpụpụ", "ihe ize ndụ", "nsí", "ga"). Ụzọ a bụ mmélite na omume ndị gara aga, mana ọ na-egbochi ụdị nkà ịgụ na ide nke ndị nwere mkpá pụrụ iche mepụtara.[2]

Ihe nlereanya ọhụrụ maka mmepe ịgụ ihe, ọkachasị maka mmepe ọgụgụ isi n'oge, bụ ịgụ na ide na-apụta, mgbe ụfọdụ a na-akpọ ya ịgụ na ide n'oge. Ihe nlereanya a sị na ụmụaka na-amalite ịgụ ihe site na ọmụmụ, nakwa na ịmụ ịgụ ihe bụ usoro mmekọrịta dabere na ụmụaka na ọmume ihe ịgụ na ide. Ọ bụ n'okpuru ihe nlereanya ọhụrụ a ka a na-ewere ụmụaka nwere nkwarụ mmepe na mkpa pụrụ iche ka ha nwee ike ịmụta ịgụ ihe. [5][6] Buru na uche na enwere nyocha dị nta gbàsàrà ịgụ ihe na mkpa pụrụ iche, mana isiokwu a na-anwa ịnọchite anya ihe akaebe kachasị ugbu a na isiokwu a.

Ịgụ na ide

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Ịgụ na ide na-ezo aka na ọgụgụ isi na nkà ide ihe, ide ihe ịgụ ihe nnọchianya nke asụsụ, na ịgụ usoro nghọta nke ịkọwa na ịghọta usoro akara ederede. Ndị a bụ nkọwa sara mbara na nke bụ isi dịka nkọwa nke okwu ndị a na-pukari iche dabere na ihe nlereanya ma ọ bụ ụzọ.

Ụzọ na ihe nlereanya nke ịgụ

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E nwere ọtụtụ ụdị na ụzọ ịgụ ihe. A na-atụle ụfọdụ ha n'okpuru ebe a.

Echiche Dị Mfe nke Ịgụ Ihe

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Gough na Tunmer kọwara Simple View of Reading na 1986 ma Hoover na Gough gbanwere ya na 1990. [7][8]The Simple View na-atụ aro na ebumnuche kachasị nke nghọta ịgụ ihe, na iji nwee nghọta ịgụ ihe dị mma, mmadụ kwesịrị inwe ikike nkowaputa dị nma (dịka, ikike ịkọwa akara) na nghọta dị mma nke ige ntị (dịka ọmụmaatụ, ikike mmadụ ịghọta asụsụ ọnụ). [9]Ihe nlereanya a na-ebu amụma ụdị mmadụ anọ nke na-agụ akwụkwọ. [10][11]A ga-ewere ndị na-agụ akwụkwọ nwere nkà decoding na-adịghị mma ma nwee nkà nghọta nke ige ntị dị ka ndị na-ede akwụkwọ bụ ndị decoder na-adịghị ike, ma ọ bụ dyslexic. A na-akpọ ndị na-agụ akwụkwọ na-enweghị nghọta dị mma dị ka ndị na-ede akwụkwọ na-aghọta ihe na-adịghị mma. A na-ewere ndị na-agụ akwụkwọ nwere nkà na-adịghị mma na nkà na-enweghị nghọta na-adịghị mmá dị ka ndị na-ede akwụkwọ, ma ọ bụ mgbe ụfọdụ a na-akpọ ha ndị na-enweghị ike ịgụ akwụkwọ. A na-ewere ndị na-agụ akwụkwọ nwere ezigbo decoding na ige ntị dị ka ndị na-ede akwụkwọ dị mmá.

Ihe nlereanya njikọ nke mmepe ọgụgụ

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Ìhè nlereanya ụdị njikọ emeela ka usoro njikọ na mmekọrịta mmekọrịta dị n'etiti okwu ndị e biri ebi (orthography), ụda / okwu a na-ekwuputa (phonology), na nkọwa okwu (semantics). [12][13][14]A chọrọ ngụkọta nke koodu atọ a (okwu ndị e bírí ebi, ụda, na nkọwa okwu) maka ịgụ. Dị ka Seidenberg na McClelland si kwuo, otu usoro na-etinye aka n'ịgụ ihe (gụnyere ịgụ okwu nkịtị, okwu ndị dị iche, na okwu ndị na-abụghị okwu). [12]Site na mmepe, ahụmịhe na okwu ndị nwere isi na nkwekọrịta ụda na-enye ohere ka a gbanwee nnọchiteanya nke semantics, orthography, na phonology. Ịmepụta nnọchiteanya nke orthography, phonology, na semantics bụ usoro mmekọrịta ebe mmepe nke otu akụkụ na-emetụta ma na-emetụ n'ahụ ihe ndị ọzọ.

Uzo i gbo mkpa á nà akpọ Ụzọ abụọ na-egosi na enwere ike iji usoro abụọ dị iche iche, ma ọ bụ ụzọ, na ọgụgụ okwu. [15][16]A na-edozi okwu ndị na-agbaso iwu ụda iche (gụnyere okwu nkịtị na okwu ndị na'abụghị okwu ndị na na-agbaso iwu mkpụrụedemede na ụda) site na ụzọ na-abụghị okwu. Ụzọ na-abụghị okwu na-agbaso usoro iwu na-akọwa mmekọrịta dị n'etiti mkpụrụ edemede na ụda iji dozie okwu nke ọma. N'aka nke ọzọ, okwu ndị pụrụ iche, ma ọ bụ okwu ndị na-adịghị mma, nke na-adịghị agbaso iwu ụda na-edozi site na ụzọ okwu. Enwere ike iche ụzọ okwu dị ka usoro nyocha akwụkwọ nkowaputa okwu.[15]

Ịgụ ihe bụ ihe omume dị na asụsụ. Site na nke a, ụfọdụ etinyela nkà ihe ọmụma asụsụ dum na ntụziaka ịgụ ihe. Na mbido afọ 1990, otu mmegharị maka asụsụ dum gbara ndị nkụzi n'ile ume ịmụ ịgụ ihe anya dị ka ịmụ ikwu okwu mà ọbu isu asụsụ. [17][18][19]Nkà ihe ọmụma a na-ekwusi ike n'ịmụta asụsụ na nkà ịgụ ihe site na ahụmịhe bara uru kama site na nkuzi iwu na-enweghị isi. Okwu ndị ọzọ maka usoro ntụziaka a na-agụnye ntụziaka dabeere na akwụkwọ na ntụziaka ntụziaka.

Iji mezuo ebum uche ma ọbu ịrụ ogo nke obosara na omimi nke ntụziaka ịgụ na ide nke National Reading Panel (2000) setịpụrụ, ọtụtụ mmemme ịgụ na ide gụnyere ihe anọ dị mkpa: Ịgụ ihe na okpúru onye nduzi nke na-elekwasị anya na nkà nghọta ọ bụ ezie na ọ na-ahụ ọtụtụ ahụmịhe akwụkwọ; ọmụmụ okwu, nke na'agụnye ụdaume, mmata ụdaume, na ntụziaka okwu; ọgụgụ onwe onye, nke na-enye ụmụaka ahụmịhe kwa ụbọchị n'oge ọgụgụ onwe ya; na ederede, nke na itinye uche na usoro nke ide ihe na nkwurịta okwu n'ụzọ dị irè maka ọtụtụ ebumnuche (Foley & Stables, 2007).[20][2]

Ọnụ ọgụgụ ndị nọ n'ihe ize ndụ dị ụkwuu

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Ụmụaka nwere nsogbu asụsụ nọ n'ihe ize ndụ dị ukwuu maka nsogbu ịgụ ihe ma ọ bụ nsogbu nke nwere ike ịpụta n'oge ha nọ n'ụlọ akwụkwọ ọta akara ma gaa n'ihu ogologo ndụ ha n'iie. [21]Ndị a gụnyere ụmụaka nwere ikike asụsụ nke dabanye n'okpuru atụmanya maka afọ ha, na ọkwa ahụike ma ọ bụ nwere adịghị ike n'asụsụ nke na-adịghị njọ iji mezuo ụkpụrụ maka nchọpụta ahụike nke nsogbu asụsụ á nà akpọ dyslexia na okwu bekee.Ụmụaka nwere nkwarụ ndị ọzọ nwekwara ike ịnwe nkwarụ asụsụ nke nwere ike ịkpata ohere dị ukwuu nke inwe nsogbu ịgụ ihe. Nkwarụ ndị dị otú ahụ gụnyere (ma ọ bụghị nanị): Nkwarụ asụsụ, nsogbu ụda olu, Nsogbu Asụsụ, nkwarụ mmepe, nsogbu ọdịdị autism, Ọrịa Down, Fragile X syndrome, na Cerebral paralysis.

Ndị nwere nsogbu ikwu okwu siri ike nwere ike iji ngwaọrụ nkwurịta okwu na nkwurịta Okwu ọzọ (AAC). Mkpa na nsonaazụ dị mma nke ịgụ na ide maka ndị nwere nsogbu asụsụ na ndị ọrụ AAC enweghị ọgwụgwụ. Dị ka ọ dịrị onye ọ bụla, ịgụ na ide na-emeghe ọnụ ụzọ nkè agụmakwụkwọ, ọrụ, ma na-enye ohere "ndị mmadụ dị iche iche Ina-agbanwerịta ozi, na-enwe nkwurịta okwu n'etiti mmadụ, na-ebute mkpa na ọchịchọ na ịzụlite ọwa nke nkwupụta onwe onye". [22]Otú ọ dị, maka ndị ọrụ AAC, nkà ịgụ na ide nwere ike ịbụ ihe dị mkpa karị ka ịgụ na ide "na-enye ndị nwere nsogbu ikwu okwu siri ike ohere ịmalite isiokwu, ịzụlite echiche, inye nkọwa, ikwurịta okwu n'onwe ha, iso ndị na-ege ntị dị iche iche na-emekọrịta ihe, echiche, na mmetụta. " N'ụzọ dị mwute, ọbụna nyere mkpa nke nkà ịgụ na ede ndị na-eji AAC anaghị enye ndị "ezi ohere mmụta" iji mụta nkà. [23][24]A chọrọ nnyocha ndị ọzọ banyere otu esi amụba nkuzi ịgụ na ide nye ndị nwere nsogbu ikwu okwu siri ike na ndị ọrụ AAC.

Ìgwè na-etinye aka

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

A na-atụ anya ka ndị nkuzi klas tinye aka na iroputa ngwa orụ nke ntụziaka ịgụ ihe

maka ọtụtụ ụmụ akwụkwọ. [25]Ndị nkuzi Agụmakwụkwọ pụrụ iche nwere ike ịgbakwunye ntụziaka klas na ọgụgụ na ide ihe dabere na arụmọrụ onwe onye nke ụmụ akwụkwọ ha. [26]Ndị ọkachamara ndị ọzọ gụnyere ọkachamara n'ịgụ akwụkwọ, onye na-ahụ maka ọrịa asụsụ, onye na'akparamàgwà mmadụ nke agụmakwụkwọ ma ọ bụ ụlọ akwụkwọ, na onye na-agwọ ọrịa n'ọrụ nwekwara ike inye nkwado ịgụ na ide maka ndị nwere nsogbu ịgụ na ide.[27][28][29]

Obere ìgwè nke nsogbu ịgụ ihe

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N'ikwu ya n'ozuzu, a na-akpọ ndị nwere ihe ịma aka n'ihu na decoding dị ka ndị decoder na-adịghị mma. Dyslexia bụ nkwarụ a kapịrị ọnụ pụrụ iche ebe ndị mmadụ na-egosi ihe isi ike na decoding. Ndị na-emebi ihe na-adịghị mma enwetabeghị ihe ọmụma bụ isi nke iwu ederede ụda, ọkachasị nkà phonological (nkà nke gụnyere ịchọpụta na ịchịkwa okwu, mkpụrụedemede, mmalite, rimes, na phonemes - ụda ọ bụla). Na mgbakwunye, ikike asụsụ na-egosipụtakarị ihe ọmụma ọdịdị na syntactic na-adịghị mma. [30][31]Ntinye aka nke na-elekwasị anya na ikike decoding nwere ike ịgụnye ntụziaka na ụda, mmata phonological, na mmata phonemic (lee Dyslexia intervention).

Nsogbu na ọnụ ọgụgụ ọgụgụ ọgụgụ

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Ụfọdụ ndị mmadụ nwere ike inwe nsogbu na ọnụ ọgụgụ ọgụgụ ọgụgụ, ebe ha nwere nghọta ziri ezi na ikike nghọta dị mma, mana ọsọ ọgụgụ nke na-abụkarị otu afọ na ọkara n'okpuru ọkwa.[31]Atụmatụ ndị nwere ike inyere ọnụ ọgụgụ ọgụgụ ọgụgụ áká gụnyere: ọgụgụ / onye mmekọ, ọgụgụ nduzi, ọgụgụ ugboro ugboro, na ọgụgụ nkịtị, ige onye ọzọ ntị nke ọma (National Reading Panel, 2000;).[32]

Ndị mmadụ dị iche iche nwekwara nsogbu ịgụ ihe nke ọma, ma ọ bụ ịgụ ihe n'ụzọ ziri ezi, nke dị nro, na nke kwesịrị ekwesị na nkwupụta ziri ezi.Atụmatụ: ịkekọrịta / onye mmekọ ịgụ, ịgụ akwụkwọ, ịgụ ugboro ugboro, na ịgụ ihe n'olu, ige onye ọzọ ntị nke ọma (National Reading Panel, 2000).[32]

Ụfọdụ ndị mmadụ nwere ike ịnwe nkà dị n'ime ihe ndị dị n'elu mana ha ka nwere nsogbu na nghọta ịgụ ihe. A na-akpọkarị ndị a ndị na-aghọta ihe na-adịghị mma, ma ọ bụ ndị nwere nghọta na ezughi oke. Atụmatụ ndị a pụrụ iji melite nghọta ịgụ ihe gụnyere: iwulite nkà asụsụ na-anụ ihe, gụnyere nkà na: ihe ọmụma okwu, akụkọ, nghọta ige ntị, na asụsụ ihe atụ. [33]Tụkwasị na nke a, mgbe ị na-arụ ọrụ iji mụbaa nghọta ọgụgụ maka ederede ụfọdụ, mmadụ nwere ike ịkọwa okwu okwu ma kwurịta ihe ọmụma gara aga na isiokwu metụtara ederede ma ọbu edemede tupu ịgụ wa ya. (Hụkwa nghọta ọgụgụ maka atụmatụ na ozi ndị ọzọ.)

Nsogbu ịgụ ihe dị iche iche

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Ụmụaka nwere ike inwe nsogbu n'ihe karịrị otu n'ime ihe ndịị edepụtara na mbụ.

Ịgụ ihe n'etiti ndị mmadụ pụrụ iche

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Nsogbu ịgụ ihe n'etiti ndị mmadụ pụrụ iche dị ka Downs syndrome, autism, na cerebral palsy na-agbaso nzomukwu yiri nke mmepe ịgụ ihe na nsogbu ịgụ ihe dịka akọwapụtara na mpaghara nke nsogbu ịgụ ihe.

Ọrịa Down

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Achọpụtala eziokwu maka ụmụaka nwere nkwarụ ọgụgụ isi dị iche iche, dị ka ụmụaka nwere Down syndrome, na nkà ịmara ụda olu na-enwekarị nkwarụ ma chọọ nkuzi a kapịrị ọnụ. [34]Dịka ọmụmaatụ, nnyocha achọpụtala na ụmụaka nwere Down syndrome na-egosi ụkọ n'ịmara ụdaolu, ọ bụ ezie na ha nwere ike ịzụlite nkà dị otú ahụ, na-adabere na ihe ọmụma okwu anya karịa nkà ịmara ụdaolu iji kọwaa okwu. [35]N'iburu nke a n'uche, a na-atụ aro ka a kụziere nkà mmụta ụdaolu n'ụzọ a haziri ahazi na ntụziaka doro anya banyere otu esi eji nkà ndị a mgbe ị na-agụ.

Ụmụaka nwere nsogbu autism spectrum (ASD) amátala na ha nwere nsogbu ụfọdụ na nghọta ịgụ ihe n'agbanyeghị ikike decoding. [36][37][38]N'akụkọ ihe mere eme sị te na mbido, a na-ewere ndị ahụ dị mma karịsịa na decoding ma ha enweghị nghọta dị ala na ha nwere hyperlexia. [39]Otú ọ dị, ọ bụghị ndị niile nwere autism bụ ndị na-aghọta ihe na-adịghị mma n'ihi na enwere ikike dịgasị iche iche n'ime ụmụaka nọ n'ụdị. [40]N'agbanyeghị ụdị onye na-agụ akwụkwọ onye nwere autism nwere ike ịbụ, a ga-enye ndị mmadụ ohere ịmụta ịgụ ihe.[41]Ọmụmụ ihe ole na ole enyochawo ịdị irè nke ntinye aka maka ịgụ ihe maka ndị nwere ASD.[42]Iji ntụziaka enyemaka kọmputa iji mejuputa mmemme maka ndị nwere ASD nke na-elekwasị anya na nkà na decoding nwere ike ịbụ ụzọ dị irè iji nyere aka melite nkà ndị a na ndị a. [43][44][45][46]Ọrụ nhazi usoro dị ka ajụjụ tupu ịdepụta, ịdọ aka ná ntị anaphoric, ma ọ bụ ọrụ cloze nyere aka melite nghọta ịgụ ihe na ọrụ ịdọ akaebe anaphoric bụ ọrụ kachasị dị irè.[36]

Ọrịa ụbụrụ

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Ụmụaka nwere Ọrịa ụbụrụ (CP) nwere ike ma ọ bụ enwéghị ike inwe nkwarụ ikwu okwu na / ma ọ bụ nkwarụ asụsụ, nke nwere ike iduga na nsogbu ịgụ ihe. [47]Ọtụtụ mgbe, a pụrụ ịhazi ụmụaka nwere CP dị ka ndị nwere oke nsogbu okwu na nkwarụ anụ ahụ (SSPI), mana ụmụaka nwere nsogbu ndị ọzọ nwekwara ike ịdaba na nsogbu nke a. Ụmụaka nwèrè nsogbu SSPI nwere ike ịnwe ihe ize ndụ dị ukwuu maka nsogbu ịgụ akwụkwọ ọ bụghị naanị n'ihi na ha nwere ike ịnata nkwarụ asụsụ, kamakwa n'ihi ete ha nwere ike inwe obere ahụmịhe akwụkwọ na obere ntụziaka ịgụ akwụkwọ. [48][49]Tụkwasị na nke a, ndị nne na nna na ndị nkuzi nwere ike ịnwe atụmanya dị ala banyere ikike nwatakịrị nwere ịghọ onye na-agụ akwụkwọ, nke nwere ike imetụta ahụmịhe na ederede ma metụta ntụziaka ịgụ na ide. [50]Enwere ike iji teknụzụ enyemaka (nke a na-akpọkwa Alternative and Augmentative Communication devices; AAC) merie ihe mgbochi anụ ahụ iji chịkwaa akwụkwọ, na iji bulie nsogbu okwu na asụsụ (dịka, dee, ma ọ bụ họrọ akara iji mata okwu na-ada ụda), na nkwarụ ọgụgụ isi (iji nye nkwado achọrọ maka inweta nkà) (Copeland & Keef, 2007, lee isi nke 9). [2]N'ezie, ịnweta ngwaọrụ enyemaka ezughị maka mmepe ọgụgụ. A chọrọ ntụziaka agụmakwụkwọ kwesịrị ekwesị (dịka, ntụziaka na nkà ịmara ụdaolu, nkà ịmara fonemiki, ụdaolu, ịdị mma, okwu, nghọta ederede, na mgbakọ akwụkwọ), na-eduzi oge ọgụgụ akụkọ mgbe niile, iji AT / AAC na-ewuli elu iji lekwasị anya na nkà ịgụ na ide, atụmanya dị elu nke mmụta ụmụ akwụkwọ, na gburugburu ebe ederede bara ọgaranya dị mkpa maka ịzụlite nkà ịgụ na ịgụ na ide n'ime ụmụaka nwere CP.[48]

Edensibia

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]
  1. ↑ (November 2010) "Historical perspectives on literacy in early childhood". Am J Speech Lang Pathol 19 (4): 341–55. DOI:10.1044/1058-0360(2010/09-0038). PMID 20581109. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Elizabeth B. Keefe (2007). Effective literacy instruction for students with moderate or severe disabilities. Paul H. Brookes Publishing. ISBN 978-1-55766-837-0. OCLC 77011619. 
  3. ↑ Browder (2004). "The Alignment of Alternate Assessment Content with Academic and Functional Curricula". The Journal of Special Education 37 (4): 211–223. DOI:10.1177/00224669040370040101. ISSN 0022-4669. 
  4. ↑ Brown (1979). "A Strategy for Developing Chronological-Age-Appropriate and Functional Curricular Content for Severely Handicapped Adolescents and Young Adults". The Journal of Special Education 13 (1): 81–90. DOI:10.1177/002246697901300113. ISSN 0022-4669. 
  5. ↑ K.A. Erickson (2000). "All children are ready to learn: An emergent versus readiness perspective in early literacy assessment". Seminars in Speech and Language 21 (3): 193-202; quiz 202-3. DOI:10.1055/s-2000-13193. PMID 10958428. 
  6. ↑ D.A. Koppenhaver (2003). "Natural emergent literacy supports for preschoolers with autism and severe communication impairments". Topics in Language Disorders 23 (4): 283. DOI:10.1097/00011363-200310000-00004. 
  7. ↑ Gough (1986). "Decoding, Reading, and Reading Disability". Remedial and Special Education 7 (1): 6–10. DOI:10.1177/074193258600700104. ISSN 0741-9325. 
  8. ↑ W.A. Hoover (1990). The Simple View of Reading. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal. Retrieved on 2012-07-26. 
  9. ↑ (June 2009) "Revisiting the simple view of reading". Br J Educ Psychol 79 (Pt 2): 353–70. DOI:10.1348/978185408X369020. PMID 19091164. 
  10. ↑ (2003) "Subgrouping poor readers on the basis of individual differences in reading-related abilities". J Learn Disabil 36 (2): 151–64. DOI:10.1177/002221940303600208. PMID 15493430. 
  11. ↑ (April 2006) "Language deficits in poor comprehenders: a case for the simple view of reading". J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 49 (2): 278–93. DOI:10.1044/1092-4388(2006/023). PMID 16671844. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 (October 1989) "A distributed, developmental model of word recognition and naming". Psychol Rev 96 (4): 523–68. DOI:10.1037/0033-295X.96.4.523. PMID 2798649. 
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  14. ↑ Seidenberg MS (2007). "Connectionist models of reading", in Gaskell, Gareth: The Oxford handbook of psycholinguistics. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-856897-1. OCLC 104836761. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Coltheart (1993). "Models of reading aloud: Dual-route and parallel-distributed-processing approaches.". Psychological Review 100 (4): 589–608. DOI:10.1037/0033-295X.100.4.589. ISSN 0033-295X. 
  16. ↑ (February 2010) "A dual-route perspective on brain activation in response to visual words: evidence for a length by lexicality interaction in the visual word form area (VWFA)". NeuroImage 49 (3): 2649–61. DOI:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.10.082. PMID 19896538. 
  17. ↑ How Should Reading be Taught? by K. Rayner, B.R. Foorman, C.A. Perfetti, D. Pesetsky, M.S. Seidenberg (2002). Scientific America inc.. Archived from the original on 2017-04-20. Retrieved on 2023-10-28.
  18. ↑ J.A. Norris (1992). Some Questions and Answers about Whole Language. American Journal of Speech Language Pathology. 
  19. ↑ Norris, Janet (1993). Whole language intervention for school-age children. San Diego, Calif.: Singular Pub. Group. ISBN 978-1-56593-070-4. OCLC 469305849. 
  20. ↑ Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching Children to Read. NIHCD. Archived from the original on 2008-07-05.
  21. ↑ L.E. Skibbe (2008). Reading Trajectories of Children with Language Difficulties from Preschool Through Fifth Grade. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools. 
  22. ↑ Light, J., & Kelford Smith, A. (1993). Home literacy experiences of preschoolers who use AAC systems and of their nondisabled peers. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 9, 10–25 p. 10.
  23. ↑ Light, J., & Kelford Smith, A. (1993). Home literacy experiences of preschoolers who use AAC systems and of their nondisabled peers. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 9, 10–25 p.10
  24. ↑ Janet M. Sturm Associate Professor, Stephanie A. Spadorcia, James W. Cunningham, Kathleen S. Cali, Amy Staples, Karen Erickson, David E. Yoder & David A. Koppenhaver (2006) What happens to reading between first and third grade? Implications for students who use AAC, Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 22:1, 21-36 p. 21, DOI: 10.1080/07434610500243826
  25. ↑ NEA'S Official Reading Policy. Archived from the original on 2012-01-25. Retrieved on 2011-12-20.
  26. ↑ Highly Qualified Teachers. Archived from the original on 2012-01-02. Retrieved on 2011-12-20.
  27. ↑ Role of the reading specialist position statement. International Reading Association (January 2000). Archived from the original on 2012-01-03.
  28. ↑ NASP model: 10 domains of practice. National Association of School Psychologists (2010).
  29. ↑ Handwriting. The American Occupational Therapy Association, Inc.. Retrieved on 2011-12-20.
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  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Catts, Hugh William (2011). Language and Reading Disabilities (3rd Edition) (Allyn & Bacon Communication Sciences and Disorders). Boston, Mass: Allyn & Bacon. ISBN 978-0-13-707277-4. OCLC 707726486. 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 L. Wiebe Griffith (2004). A focus on Fluency: How One Teacher Incorporated Fluency with her Reading Curriculum. The Reading Teacher. 
  33. ↑ P.J. Clarke (2010). Ameliorating Children's Reading-Comprehension Difficulties: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Psychological Science. 
  34. ↑ E. Kay-Raining Bird (2000). Reading and Phonological Awareness in Children with Down Syndrome: A Longitudinal Study. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology. 
  35. ↑ M.J. Snowling (2002). A Deficit in Rime Awareness in Children with Down Syndrome. Reading and Writing. 
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 N. O’Connor, and P.D. Klein (2004). Exploration of Strategies for Facilitating the Reading Comprehension of High-Functioning Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 
  37. ↑ N. O’Connor, and B. Hermelin (1994). Two Autistic Savant Readers. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 
  38. ↑ S.V. Huemer (2010). "A comprehensive profile of decoding and comprehension in autism spectrum disorders". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 40 (4): 485–93. DOI:10.1007/s10803-009-0892-3. PMID 19915968. 
  39. ↑ K. Nation (1999). "Reading skills in hyperlexia: A developmental perspective". Psychological Bulletin 125 (3): 338–55. DOI:10.1037/0033-2909.125.3.338. PMID 10349355. 
  40. ↑ K. Nation (2006). Patterns of reading ability in children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 
  41. ↑ P. Mirenda (2003). "He's not really a reader...": Perspectives on supporting literacy development in individuals with autism. Topics in Language Disorders. 
  42. ↑ K.J. Whalon (2009). Evidence-based reading instruction for individuals with autism spectrum disorder. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities. 
  43. ↑ M. Heimann (1995). Increasing reading and communication skills in children with autism through an interactive multimedia computer program. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 
  44. ↑ C. Basil (2003). Acquisition of literacy skills by children with severe disability. Child Language Teaching and Therapy. 
  45. ↑ T.Tjus, M. Heimann (1998). Gains in literacy through the use of a specially developed multimedia computer strategy. Autism. 
  46. ↑ M.B. Coleman-Martin (2005). Using computer assisted instruction and the nonverbal reading approach to teach word identification. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities. 
  47. ↑ K.C. Hustad (2010). "Classification of Speech and Language Profiles in 4-year-old Children with Cerebral Palsy: A Prospective Preliminary Study". Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 53 (6): 1496–513. DOI:10.1044/1092-4388(2010/09-0176). PMID 20643795. 
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 D.G. Mike (1993). Literacy and cerebral palsy: factors influencing literacy learning in a self-contained setting. Journal of Literacy Research. 
  49. ↑ D.A. Koppenhaver (1993). Classroom literacy instruction for children with severe speech and physical impairments (SSPI): what is and what might be. Journal of Literacy Research. 
  50. ↑ J. Light (1993). Literacy and augmentative and alternative communication (AAC): the expectations and priorities of parents and teachers. Topics in Language Disorders. 
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