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Asụsụ Kalasha

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Asụsụ Kalasha
natural language, modern language
obere ụdị nkeChitrali Dezie
akara alaKal'as'amondr, کالؕاشؕا موندر Dezie
mba/obodoPakistan Dezie
ụmụ amaala kaKhyber Pakhtunkhwa, Azad Kashmir, Gilgit-Baltistan Dezie
ụdị asụsụsubject–object–verb Dezie
usoro ederedeKalasha Roman orthography, Kalasha Urdu-based orthography Dezie
Ọkwa asụsụ UNESCO4 severely endangered Dezie
Ọkwa asụsụ Ethnologue6a Vigorous Dezie

Kalasha (klskls [kaʹaʂaː], n'ógbè: Kal'as'amondr) bụ Asụsụ Indo-Aryan nke Ndị Kalash na-asụ, na Chitral District nke mpaghara Khyber Pakhtunkhwa nke Pakistan. kls[1] nwere ihe dịka 4,100 na-asụ Kalasha. [2] bụ Asụsụ nọ n'ihe ize ndụ ma enwere Mgbanwe asụsụ na-aga n'ihu na Khowar.

Kalasha ekwesịghị inwe mgbagwoju anya na asụsụ Nuristani dị nso Waigali (Kalasha-ala). Dị ka Badshah Munir Bukhari, onye nyocha na Kalash siri kwuo, "Kalasha" bụkwa aha agbụrụ maka ndị Nuristani bi na mpaghara ndịda ọdịda anyanwụ nke ndagwurugwu Kalasha, na Waygal na etiti Pech Valleys nke Afghanistan Nuristan Province. [3] "Kalasha" yiri ka ndị na-asụ Kalasha nke Chitral si na Nuristanis nke Waygal, bụ ndị gbasaa ruo n'ebe ndịda Chitral ọtụtụ narị afọ gara aga. Otú ọ dị, enweghị njikọ chiri anya n'etiti asụsụ Indo-Aryan Kalasha-mun (Kalasha) na asụsụ Nuristani Kalasha-ala (Waigali), nke sitere na alaka dị iche iche nke Asụsụ Indo-Iranian.

Akụkọ ihe mere eme

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Ndị ọkà mmụta mbụ rụrụ ọrụ na Kalasha gụnyere onye ọwụwa anyanwụ nke narị afọ nke 19 Gottlieb Wilhelm Leitner na onye ọkà mmụta asụsụ nke narị afọ de 20 Georg Morgenstierne. N'oge na-adịbeghị anya, Elena Bashir na ọtụtụ ndị ọzọ emeela nnyocha. A na-ejikọta mmepe nke ihe ndị bara uru maka ịgụ na ide na onye ọkà mmụta asụsụ Kalasha Taj Khan Kalash. Southern Kalash ma ọ bụ Urtsun Kalash gbanwere gaa n'asụsụ Khowar nke Kalasha-mun na narị afọ nke 20 a na-akpọ Urtsuniwar.

Nchịkọta

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[4]'ime asụsụ niile dị na Pakistan, Kalasha nwere ike ịbụ asụsụ kachasị agbaso omenala, tinyere asụsụ Khowar dị nso. N'okwu ole na ole, Kalasha na-enwekwa nchekwa karịa Khowar, dịka ọmụmaatụ. na idowe consonants ndị na-achọsi ike, bụ ndị na-apụ n'anya n'ọtụtụ asụsụ Dardic ndị ọzọ.

A A na-ahụ ụfọdụ n'ime ihe ndogide ụda na ụyọkọ (na pụtara) n'ime ndepụta ndị a. Agbanyeghị, rịba ama ụfọdụ atụmatụ Indo-Aryan na Dardic ọhụrụ a na-ahụkarị. [5]

Ọmụmụ ụdaolu

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Asụsụ Kalasha bụ phonologically atypical n'ihi na ọ na-emegide ụdaume dị mfe, ogologo, imi na retroflex yana njikọta nke ndị a (Heegård & Mørch 2004). [6] depụtara n'okpuru ebe a bụ ụdaume nke Kalasha:

Mkpụrụedemede

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N'ihu Central Ịlaghachi azụ
N'akụkụ i ĩ i˞ ĩ˞ u ũ u˞ ũ˞
N'etiti e ẽ e˞ ẽ˞ o õ o˞ õ˞
Emeghe a ã a˞ ã˞

Mkpụrụ okwu

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Dị ka ọ dị n'asụsụ Dardic ndị ọzọ, ọnọdụ ụdaume nke usoro a na-eku ume bụ ihe arụmụka. [7] ụfọdụ ejighị n'aka ma ha bụ phonemic ma ọ bụ allophonic - ya bụ, nkwupụta oge niile nke ụyọkọ ụdaume na /h/ .

Akpụkpọ ahụ Alveolar Retroflex Postalveolar/Palatal
 Velar Uvular Mkpịsị aka
Ụgbọ imi m n (ɳ) (ɲ) (ŋ)
Kwụsị enweghị olu p t ʈ k (q)
kwuru okwu b d ɖ ɡ
aspirated pʰ tʰ ʈʰ kʰ
ume na-eme ka a nụ bʱ dʱ ɖʱ ɡʱ
Africate enweghị olu ts tʂ tɕ
kwuru okwu dz dʐ dʑ
aspirated tsʰ tʂʰ tɕʰ
ume na-eme ka a nụ dʑʱ
Ihe na-esiri ike enweghị olu s ʂ ɕ (x) h
kwuru okwu z ʐ ʑ (ɣ)
Ihe atụ Ọdịda Anyanwụ j w
Rhotic r (ɽ)

A na-ahụ ụdaume /x ɣ q/ na okwu ndị a gbazitere.

Ntụnyere nke okwu

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Tebụl [8]-esonụ na-eji okwu Kalash tụnyere okwu ha n'asụsụ Indo-Aryan ndị ọzọ.

Bekee Kalasha Sanskrit asụsụ ndị ọzọ nke Indo-Aryan
ọkpụkpụ Ọ bụ n'oge ahụ ka ọ dị asthi Hindi -; Nepali ā̃ṭh 'ikpere'
mamịrị mutra, mútra mūtra H. mūt; Assamese mut
Obodo nta grom ahịhịa H. gā̃w; A. gãü
eriri rajuk, raĵhú-k rajju H. lej, lejur; A. lezu
anwụrụ ọkụ Tum dhūma H. dhūā̃, dhuwā̃; A. dhü̃a
anụ na-eme maṃsa H. mā̃s, mās, māsā
nkịta shua, śõ.'a śvan H. -; Sinhalese suvan
ndanda pililak, pilílak pipīla, pippīlika H. pipṛā; A. pipora
ụda put, putr Ntughari H. pūt; A. put
ogologo oge driga, dríga dīrgha H. dīha; A. digha
asatọ asht, aṣṭ aṣṭā H. āṭh; A. ath
gbajiri agbaji China, čhína chinna H. chīn-nā 'iji were';
gbuo nash nash, naś, naśyati H. nā̆s 'na-ebibi'

Àgwà ndị na-agbaso omenala

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Ihe atụ nke ihe ndị na-agbaso omenala na Kalasha na Khowar bụ (ihe odide, NIA = New Indo-Aryan, MIA = Middle Indo-Arjan, OIA = Old Indo-Arayan):

  • Nchekwa nke intervocalic /m/ (ebelata na /w/ ma ọ bụ /v/ na njedebe MIA n'ebe ọzọ), dịka Kal. grom, Kho. gram "obodo" < OIA grāma
  • Enweghị iwepu intervocalic /t/, echekwara dị ka /l/ ma ọ bụ /w/ na Kalasha, /r/ na Khowar (ehichapụ n'etiti MIA n'ebe ọzọ), dịka Kho. brār "nwanne" < OIA bhrātṛ; Kal. ʃau < *ʃal, Kho. ʃor "otu narị" < OIA śata
  • Nchebe nke ọdịiche dị n'etiti ihe atọ OIA sibilants (dental /s/, palatal /ś/, retroflex /ṣ/); n'ọtụtụ mpaghara, atọ a agbakọtalarị tupu 200 BC (MIA mbido)
  • Nchekwa nke sibilant + consonant, stop + /r/ clusters (efu site na MIA mbụ n'ọtụtụ ebe ndị ọzọ):
    • Kal. Ọ bụ n'oge ahụ ka e si nweta ya. Aghtht" < OIA aṣṭā; Kal. hast, Kho. onye ọbịa "aka" < OPC ruo; Kal. Istam "bunch" < OI stamba; Kho. istōr "akpa ịnyịnya" < OYA sthōra; Kho. isnār "sacha" < OICA snāta; Kal. Kho. Iskow "peg" < OISA *skabha (< skambha); Kho. Iśper "acha ọcha" < OIA śvēta; Kal. isprɛs, Kho. iśpreṣi "nne di" < OIA śvaśru; Kal. piṣṭ "azụ" < OIA pṛṣṭha; Kho. aśrū "ịkwa" < OIA aśru.
    • Kho. Kren- "zụta" < OIA krīṇ-; Kal. grom, Kho. grom "obodo" < OIA grāma; Kal. gŕä "olu" < OIA grīva; Kho. griṣp "oge okpomọkụ" < OIA grīṣma
  • Nchekwa nke /ts/ na Kalasha (nke a kọwapụtara dị ka otu foneme)
  • Nchekwa kpọmkwem nke ọtụtụ njedebe ikpe OIA dị ka ihe a na-akpọ "ọkwa 1" njedebe ikpe (dị iche na njedebe ikpe ọhụrụ "ọkwa 2" nke a na-ejikarị eme ihe na ikpe 1 oblique):
    • Aha
    • [Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] --afọ, Kho. --afọ < OIA -ān
    • Akụkụ: Kal. --afọ (sg.), -an (pl.); Kho. -o (sg.), -an, -ān (pl.) < OIA --Asiya (sg.), āṇām (pl.)
    • Ihe e dere n'akwụkwọ: Kal. -a, Kho. -a < OIA dative -āya, n'ebe ọzọ furu efu na njedebe OIA
    • Ngwá ọrụ: Kal. --afọ, Kho. -en < OIA -ēna-n'ihi na ọ bụ n'oge ahụ ka ọ na-anọ
    • Nkọwa: Kal. -au, Kho. -ār < OIA -āt
    • Ebe obibi: Kal. -ai, Kho. -i < OIA -ai
  • Nchebe nke ihe karịrị otu okwu (dịka Kho. Mar-īm "M na-egbu" vs. bri-um "M na na-anwụ")
  • Nchebe nke ọdịiche OIA n'etiti njedebe "nke mbụ" (nke na-abụghị nke gara aga) na nke "nke abụọ" (nke gara aga) yana nke oge gara aga "mbuli" na a-, ha abụọ furu efu kpamkpam n'ebe ọzọ: Kal. pim "M na-aṅụ", apis "M na'aṅụ"; 'akaris' "M na na-eme", akāris "M mere"
  • Nchebe nke okwu tupu oge eruo (lee ihe atụ dị n'elu), na akara aha / ebubo nkịtị na nkwekọrịta okwu nkịtị, n'adịghị ka oge ergative-ụdị gara aga na nkwekọ aha n'ebe ọzọ na NIA (nke dabeere na nhazi passive na mbụ)

Ịgụ ihe ọzọ

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Edensibia

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  1. ↑ 1998 Census Report of Pakistan. (2001). Population Census Organization, Statistics Division, Government of Pakistan.
  2. ↑ Heegård Petersen (30 September 2015). "Kalasha texts – With introductory grammar" (in en). Acta Linguistica Hafniensia 47 (sup1): 1–275. DOI:10.1080/03740463.2015.1069049. ISSN 0374-0463. 
  3. ↑ Richard Strand's Nuristân Site: The Kalasha of Kalashüm. Archived from the original on 1 November 2001. Retrieved on 1 November 2001., http://nuristan.info/Nuristani/Kalasha/kalasha.html
  4. ↑ Georg Morgenstierne. Indo-Iranian Frontier Languages, Vol. IV: The Kalasha Language & Notes on Kalasha. Oslo 1973, p. 184, details pp. 195-237
  5. ↑ Gérard Fussman: 1972 Atlas linguistique des parlers dardes et kafirs. Publications de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient
  6. ↑ Petersen (2015). Kalasha texts – With introductory grammar. Acta Linguistica Hafniensia,Vol. 47: International Journal of Linguistics. 
  7. ↑ Edelman (1983). The Dardic and Nuristani Languages. Moscow: (Institut vostokovedenii︠a︡ (Akademii︠a︡ nauk SSSR), 202. 
  8. ↑ R.T.Trail and G.R. Cooper, Kalasha Dictionary – with English and Urdu. National Institute of Pakistan Studies, Islamabad & Summer Institute of Linguistics, Dallas TX. 1999

Akwụkwọ

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  • Bashir (1988). Topics in Kalasha Syntax: An Areal and Typological Perspective. (Ph.D. dissertation) University of Michigan. 
  • Cacopardo (2001). Gates of Peristan: History, Religion, and Society in the Hindu Kush. Rome: Instituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente. 
  • Decker (1992). Languages of Chitral, Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan. National Institute of Pakistani Studies, 257. ISBN 969-8023-15-1. 
  • Map na-egosi nkesa okwu n'etiti ndị Kafiristan.Gerard Fussman. Atlas Linguistique Des Parles Dardes Et Kafirs. 
  • Heegård (March 2004). "Retroflex vowels and other peculiarities in Kalasha sound system", in Anju Saxena: Synchronic and Diachronic Aspects of Himalayan Linguistics, Selected Proceedings of the 7th Himalayan Languages Symposium held in Uppsala, Sweden. The Hague: Mouton. 
  • Jettmar (1985). Religions of the Hindu Kush. Aris & Phillips. ISBN 0-85668-163-6. 
  •  
  • Morgenstierne (1926). Report on a Linguistic Mission to Afghanistan, Serie C I-2. Oslo: Instituttet for Sammenlignende Kulturforskning. ISBN 0-923891-09-9. 
  • Morgenstierne (1973). The Kalasha Language & Notes on Kalasha, Indo-Iranian Frontier Languages. ISBN 4871875245. 
  • Sir George Scott Robertson (1896). The Kafirs of the Hindukush. 
  • Strand (1973). "Notes on the Nûristânî and Dardic Languages". Journal of the American Oriental Society 93: 297–305. DOI:10.2307/599462. 
  • Strand (2001). "The Tongues of Peristân", in Alberto M. Cacopardo: Gates of Peristan: History, Religion and Society in the Hindu Kush. Rome: Instituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente, 251–259. 
  • Strand (2022). "Phonatory Location in the Far North-Western Indo-Âryan Languages", in Baart: Languages of Northern Pakistan: Essays in Memory of Carla Radloff. Karachi: Oxford University Press, 446-495. 
  • Trail (1999). Kalasha dictionary—with English and Urdu, Studies in Languages of Northern Pakistan. Islamabad: National Institute of Pakistan Studies, Quaid-i-Azam University and Summer Institute of Linguistics. ISBN 4871875237. 

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