Asụsụ Kalasha

Asụsụ Kalasha

natural language, modern language

obere ụdị nke	Dardic
akara ala	Kal'as'amondr, کالاشا موندر
mba/obodo	Pakistan
ụmụ amaala ka	Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Azad Kashmir, Gilgit-Baltistan
ụdị asụsụ	subject–object–verb
usoro ederede	Kalasha Roman orthography, Kalasha Urdu-based orthography
Ọkwa asụsụ UNESCO	4 severely endangered
Ọkwa asụsụ Ethnologue	6a Vigorous

Kalasha (klskls [kaʹaʂaː], n'ógbè: Kal'as'amondr) bụ Asụsụ Indo-Aryan nke Ndị Kalash na-asụ, na Chitral District nke mpaghara Khyber Pakhtunkhwa nke Pakistan. kls nwere ihe dịka 4,100 na-asụ Kalasha. bụ Asụsụ nọ n'ihe ize ndụ ma enwere Mgbanwe asụsụ na-aga n'ihu na Khowar.

Kalasha ekwesịghị inwe mgbagwoju anya na asụsụ Nuristani dị nso Waigali (Kalasha-ala). Dị ka Badshah Munir Bukhari, onye nyocha na Kalash siri kwuo, "Kalasha" bụkwa aha agbụrụ maka ndị Nuristani bi na mpaghara ndịda ọdịda anyanwụ nke ndagwurugwu Kalasha, na Waygal na etiti Pech Valleys nke Afghanistan Nuristan Province. "Kalasha" yiri ka ndị na-asụ Kalasha nke Chitral si na Nuristanis nke Waygal, bụ ndị gbasaa ruo n'ebe ndịda Chitral ọtụtụ narị afọ gara aga. Otú ọ dị, enweghị njikọ chiri anya n'etiti asụsụ Indo-Aryan Kalasha-mun (Kalasha) na asụsụ Nuristani Kalasha-ala (Waigali), nke sitere na alaka dị iche iche nke Asụsụ Indo-Iranian.

Akụkọ ihe mere eme

Ndị ọkà mmụta mbụ rụrụ ọrụ na Kalasha gụnyere onye ọwụwa anyanwụ nke narị afọ nke 19 Gottlieb Wilhelm Leitner na onye ọkà mmụta asụsụ nke narị afọ de 20 Georg Morgenstierne. N'oge na-adịbeghị anya, Elena Bashir na ọtụtụ ndị ọzọ emeela nnyocha. A na-ejikọta mmepe nke ihe ndị bara uru maka ịgụ na ide na onye ọkà mmụta asụsụ Kalasha Taj Khan Kalash. Southern Kalash ma ọ bụ Urtsun Kalash gbanwere gaa n'asụsụ Khowar nke Kalasha-mun na narị afọ nke 20 a na-akpọ Urtsuniwar.

Nchịkọta

'ime asụsụ niile dị na Pakistan, Kalasha nwere ike ịbụ asụsụ kachasị agbaso omenala, tinyere asụsụ Khowar dị nso. N'okwu ole na ole, Kalasha na-enwekwa nchekwa karịa Khowar, dịka ọmụmaatụ. na idowe consonants ndị na-achọsi ike, bụ ndị na-apụ n'anya n'ọtụtụ asụsụ Dardic ndị ọzọ.

A A na-ahụ ụfọdụ n'ime ihe ndogide ụda na ụyọkọ (na pụtara) n'ime ndepụta ndị a. Agbanyeghị, rịba ama ụfọdụ atụmatụ Indo-Aryan na Dardic ọhụrụ a na-ahụkarị.

Ọmụmụ ụdaolu

Asụsụ Kalasha bụ phonologically atypical n'ihi na ọ na-emegide ụdaume dị mfe, ogologo, imi na retroflex yana njikọta nke ndị a (Heegård & Mørch 2004). depụtara n'okpuru ebe a bụ ụdaume nke Kalasha:

Mkpụrụedemede

	N'ihu	Central	Ịlaghachi azụ
N'akụkụ	i ĩ i˞ ĩ˞		u ũ u˞ ũ˞
N'etiti	e ẽ e˞ ẽ˞		o õ o˞ õ˞
Emeghe		a ã a˞ ã˞

Mkpụrụ okwu

Dị ka ọ dị n'asụsụ Dardic ndị ọzọ, ọnọdụ ụdaume nke usoro a na-eku ume bụ ihe arụmụka. ụfọdụ ejighị n'aka ma ha bụ phonemic ma ọ bụ allophonic - ya bụ, nkwupụta oge niile nke ụyọkọ ụdaume na /h/ .

		Akpụkpọ ahụ	Alveolar	Retroflex	Postalveolar/Palatal	Velar	Uvular	Mkpịsị aka
Ụgbọ imi		m	n	(ɳ)	(ɲ)	(ŋ)
Kwụsị	enweghị olu	p	t	ʈ		k	(q)
	kwuru okwu	b	d	ɖ		ɡ
	aspirated	pʰ	tʰ	ʈʰ		kʰ
	ume na-eme ka a nụ	bʱ	dʱ	ɖʱ		ɡʱ
Africate	enweghị olu		ts	tʂ	tɕ
	kwuru okwu		dz	dʐ	dʑ
	aspirated		tsʰ	tʂʰ	tɕʰ
	ume na-eme ka a nụ				dʑʱ
Ihe na-esiri ike	enweghị olu		s	ʂ	ɕ	(x)		h
	kwuru okwu		z	ʐ	ʑ	(ɣ)
Ihe atụ			Ọdịda Anyanwụ		j	w
Rhotic			r	(ɽ)

A na-ahụ ụdaume /x ɣ q/ na okwu ndị a gbazitere.

Ntụnyere nke okwu

Tebụl -esonụ na-eji okwu Kalash tụnyere okwu ha n'asụsụ Indo-Aryan ndị ọzọ.

Bekee	Kalasha	Sanskrit	asụsụ ndị ọzọ nke Indo-Aryan
ọkpụkpụ	Ọ bụ n'oge ahụ ka ọ dị	asthi	Hindi -; Nepali ā̃ṭh 'ikpere'
mamịrị	mutra, mútra	mūtra	H. mūt; Assamese mut
Obodo nta	grom	ahịhịa	H. gā̃w; A. gãü
eriri	rajuk, raĵhú-k	rajju	H. lej, lejur; A. lezu
anwụrụ ọkụ	Tum	dhūma	H. dhūā̃, dhuwā̃; A. dhü̃a
anụ	na-eme	maṃsa	H. mā̃s, mās, māsā
nkịta	shua, śõ.'a	śvan	H. -; Sinhalese suvan
ndanda	pililak, pilílak	pipīla, pippīlika	H. pipṛā; A. pipora
ụda	put, putr	Ntughari	H. pūt; A. put
ogologo oge	driga, dríga	dīrgha	H. dīha; A. digha
asatọ	asht, aṣṭ	aṣṭā	H. āṭh; A. ath
gbajiri agbaji	China, čhína	chinna	H. chīn-nā 'iji were';
gbuo	nash	nash, naś, naśyati	H. nā̆s 'na-ebibi'

Àgwà ndị na-agbaso omenala

Ihe atụ nke ihe ndị na-agbaso omenala na Kalasha na Khowar bụ (ihe odide, NIA = New Indo-Aryan, MIA = Middle Indo-Arjan, OIA = Old Indo-Arayan):

• Nchekwa nke intervocalic /m/ (ebelata na /w/ ma ọ bụ /v/ na njedebe MIA n'ebe ọzọ), dịka Kal. grom, Kho. gram "obodo" < OIA grāma
• Enweghị iwepu intervocalic /t/, echekwara dị ka /l/ ma ọ bụ /w/ na Kalasha, /r/ na Khowar (ehichapụ n'etiti MIA n'ebe ọzọ), dịka Kho. brār "nwanne" < OIA bhrātṛ; Kal. ʃau < *ʃal, Kho. ʃor "otu narị" < OIA śata
• Nchebe nke ọdịiche dị n'etiti ihe atọ OIA sibilants (dental /s/, palatal /ś/, retroflex /ṣ/); n'ọtụtụ mpaghara, atọ a agbakọtalarị tupu 200 BC (MIA mbido)
• Nchekwa nke sibilant + consonant, stop + /r/ clusters (efu site na MIA mbụ n'ọtụtụ ebe ndị ọzọ):
  • Kal. Ọ bụ n'oge ahụ ka e si nweta ya. Aghtht" < OIA aṣṭā; Kal. hast, Kho. onye ọbịa "aka" < OPC ruo; Kal. Istam "bunch" < OI stamba; Kho. istōr "akpa ịnyịnya" < OYA sthōra; Kho. isnār "sacha" < OICA snāta; Kal. Kho. Iskow "peg" < OISA *skabha (< skambha); Kho. Iśper "acha ọcha" < OIA śvēta; Kal. isprɛs, Kho. iśpreṣi "nne di" < OIA śvaśru; Kal. piṣṭ "azụ" < OIA pṛṣṭha; Kho. aśrū "ịkwa" < OIA aśru.
  • Kho. Kren- "zụta" < OIA krīṇ-; Kal. grom, Kho. grom "obodo" < OIA grāma; Kal. gŕä "olu" < OIA grīva; Kho. griṣp "oge okpomọkụ" < OIA grīṣma
• Nchekwa nke /ts/ na Kalasha (nke a kọwapụtara dị ka otu foneme)
• Nchekwa kpọmkwem nke ọtụtụ njedebe ikpe OIA dị ka ihe a na-akpọ "ọkwa 1" njedebe ikpe (dị iche na njedebe ikpe ọhụrụ "ọkwa 2" nke a na-ejikarị eme ihe na ikpe 1 oblique):
  • Aha
  • [Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] --afọ, Kho. --afọ < OIA -ān
  • Akụkụ: Kal. --afọ (sg.), -an (pl.); Kho. -o (sg.), -an, -ān (pl.) < OIA --Asiya (sg.), āṇām (pl.)
  • Ihe e dere n'akwụkwọ: Kal. -a, Kho. -a < OIA dative -āya, n'ebe ọzọ furu efu na njedebe OIA
  • Ngwá ọrụ: Kal. --afọ, Kho. -en < OIA -ēna-n'ihi na ọ bụ n'oge ahụ ka ọ na-anọ
  • Nkọwa: Kal. -au, Kho. -ār < OIA -āt
  • Ebe obibi: Kal. -ai, Kho. -i < OIA -ai
• Nchebe nke ihe karịrị otu okwu (dịka Kho. Mar-īm "M na-egbu" vs. bri-um "M na na-anwụ")
• Nchebe nke ọdịiche OIA n'etiti njedebe "nke mbụ" (nke na-abụghị nke gara aga) na nke "nke abụọ" (nke gara aga) yana nke oge gara aga "mbuli" na a-, ha abụọ furu efu kpamkpam n'ebe ọzọ: Kal. pim "M na-aṅụ", apis "M na'aṅụ"; 'akaris' "M na na-eme", akāris "M mere"
• Nchebe nke okwu tupu oge eruo (lee ihe atụ dị n'elu), na akara aha / ebubo nkịtị na nkwekọrịta okwu nkịtị, n'adịghị ka oge ergative-ụdị gara aga na nkwekọ aha n'ebe ọzọ na NIA (nke dabeere na nhazi passive na mbụ)

 

Akwụkwọ

• Bashir (1988). Topics in Kalasha Syntax: An Areal and Typological Perspective. (Ph.D. dissertation) University of Michigan. 
• Cacopardo (2001). Gates of Peristan: History, Religion, and Society in the Hindu Kush. Rome: Instituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente. 
• Decker (1992). Languages of Chitral, Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan. National Institute of Pakistani Studies, 257. ISBN 969-8023-15-1. 
• Map na-egosi nkesa okwu n'etiti ndị Kafiristan.Gerard Fussman. Atlas Linguistique Des Parles Dardes Et Kafirs. 
• Heegård (March 2004). "Retroflex vowels and other peculiarities in Kalasha sound system", in Anju Saxena: Synchronic and Diachronic Aspects of Himalayan Linguistics, Selected Proceedings of the 7th Himalayan Languages Symposium held in Uppsala, Sweden. The Hague: Mouton. 
• Jettmar (1985). Religions of the Hindu Kush. Aris & Phillips. ISBN 0-85668-163-6. 
•  
• Morgenstierne (1926). Report on a Linguistic Mission to Afghanistan, Serie C I-2. Oslo: Instituttet for Sammenlignende Kulturforskning. ISBN 0-923891-09-9. 
• Morgenstierne (1973). The Kalasha Language & Notes on Kalasha, Indo-Iranian Frontier Languages. ISBN 4871875245. 
• Sir George Scott Robertson (1896). The Kafirs of the Hindukush. 
• Strand (1973). "Notes on the Nûristânî and Dardic Languages". Journal of the American Oriental Society 93: 297–305. DOI:10.2307/599462. 
• Strand (2001). "The Tongues of Peristân", in Alberto M. Cacopardo: Gates of Peristan: History, Religion and Society in the Hindu Kush. Rome: Instituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente, 251–259. 
• Strand (2022). "Phonatory Location in the Far North-Western Indo-Âryan Languages", in Baart: Languages of Northern Pakistan: Essays in Memory of Carla Radloff. Karachi: Oxford University Press, 446-495. 
• Trail (1999). Kalasha dictionary—with English and Urdu, Studies in Languages of Northern Pakistan. Islamabad: National Institute of Pakistan Studies, Quaid-i-Azam University and Summer Institute of Linguistics. ISBN 4871875237. 

Njikọ mpụga

 

• Ebe Richard Strand na-edebe ihe nkiri Nuristan
• Peeji Kalasha nke Reiko na Jun na Japan
• Hindi/Urdu-English-Kalasha-Khowar-Nuristani-Pashtu Nkọwa okwu
• Ụlọ Ọrụ Asụsụ Na-ahụ Maka Ala The Kalasha Dictionary
• Ihe nchekwa data Georg Morgenstierne
• Akwụkwọ ọkọwa okwu nke Frontier Language Institute Kalasha