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Foto nke Farm Security Administration nke ezinụlọ na-egbutu ahịhịa site na ogho na nso White Plains, na Georgia, US (1941)

  Sharecropping bụ usoro iwu kwadoro nke onye nwe ala na-ekwe ka onye nwe ụlọ (sharecropper) jiri ala ahụ nweta òkè nke ihe ọkụkụ a na-emepụta n'ala ahụ. A gaghị ejikọta oke ihe ọkụkụ na ọrụ ugbo nke onye nwe ụlọ, na-enye onye nwe ụlọ ọkwa akụ na ụba na mmekọrịta ọha na eze dị elu.

Sharecropping nwere ogologo akụkọ ihe mere eme na enwere ọnọdụ dịgasị iche iche na ụdị nkwekọrịta ejirila ụdị usoro ahụ. Ụfọdụ na-achị site n'ọdịnala, ndị ọzọ bụ iwu. Metayage French, Catalan masoveria, Castilian mediero, Slavic połownictwo na izdolshchina, Italian mezzadria, na usoro Islam nke muzara'a (المزارعة), bụ ihe atụ nke usoro iwu kwadoro ịkekọrịta ihe.

Nchịkọta

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N'okpuru usoro nkekọrịta ihe, ndị nwe ala na-enye òkè nke ala nke onye na-eketa ihe ga-arụ ọrụ, ma na-enyekarị ihe ndị ọzọ dị mkpa dị ka ụlọ, ngwá ọrụ, mkpụrụ, ma ọ bụ anụmanụ na-arụ ọrụ.[1] Ndị ahịa mpaghara na-enyekarị onye na-eketa nri na ihe ndị ọzọ na kredit. N'ịgbanwe ala na akụrụngwa, onye na-akụ mkpụrụ ga-akwụ onye nwe ya òkè nke ihe ubi na njedebe nke oge, dịka ọkara ma ọ bụ ụzọ atọ. Onye na-akụ mkpụrụ ji òkè ya kwụọ onye ahịa ahụ ụgwọ ha ji.[2] Ọ bụrụ na e nwere ego fọdụrụnụ, onye na-akụ mkpụrụ na-edebe ya—ma ọ bụrụ na òkè ha eruteghị ihe ha ji, ha nọgidere n’ụgwọ.

Usoro kredit ọhụrụ, ụgwọ ihe ubi, nwere njikọ chiri anya na ịkekọrịta ihe. N'okpuru usoro a, onye na-akụ ihe ma ọ bụ onye na-ere ahịa gbatịpụrụ ahịrị kredit nye onye na-eketa ihe mgbe ọ na-ewere ihe ubi nke afọ dị ka ihe nkwekọrịta. Onye na-eketa ihe nwere ike ise ihe oriri na ihe oriri n'afọ niile. Mgbe e gbutere ihe ubi, onye na-akụ ihe ma ọ bụ ndị na-ere ahịa na-ere ihe were were were kwụọ onye na-eke òkè ihe ubi ma kwụọ ụgwọ ya.

Ọkachamara mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya bụ Jeffery M. Paige mere ka ọ dị iche n'etiti ịkekọrịta ihe n'etiti etiti a na-ahụ n'ugbo owu na ikesa ihe ọkụkụ ndị ọzọ enweghị isi. Ihe e ji mara nke mbụ bụ ogologo oge na-adịte aka. A na-ejikọta ndị nwe ụlọ na onye nwe ụlọ site na ụlọ ahịa ihe ọkụkụ. Ụdị oge a na-achọ ka ụgwọ ọnwa akwụ ụgwọ dochie ya ka ahịa na-abanye. Ịkekọrịta ihe na-enweghị isi na-agụnye ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ ọrụ ọ bụla maka onye nwe ụlọ: ala na-agbasasị agbasa, ndị ọrụ ugbo na-ejikwa ọrụ nke aka ha ma ndị nwe ala anaghị arụpụta ihe ọkụkụ. Ụdị oge a na-emekarị mgbe ahịa na-abanye.[1]

A na-akpọ ndị ọrụ ugbo bụ ndị na-akọ ala nke ndị ọzọ mana nwere inyinya mule na ịkọ ubi nke ha bụ ndị a na-akpọ ndị ọrụ ubi; ha ji onye nwe ala ụgwọ dị nta nke ihe ubi ha, n'ihi na onye nwe ala na-enyeghị ha ihe dị ukwuu n'ụzọ ihe oriri.

Ntinye site na mpaghara

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N'akụkọ ihe mere eme, ikere òkè mere nke ukwuu na Scotland, Ireland na Africa colonial. A chọpụtakwara na iji usoro ihe nkesa ihe na England (dị ka omume nke "ọrụ ugbo ruo ọkara").[4] A na-eji ya eme ihe na ndịda United States n'oge oge nrụgharị (1865-1877) nke sochiri agha obodo America, bụ nke na-emebi akụ na ụba na steeti ndịda.[5]. A ka na-eji ya eme ihe n'ọtụtụ ebe ndị ogbenye ime obodo nke ụwa taa, ọkachasị na Pakistan, India, na Bangladesh. [2][3][4]

Afrịka

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N'ebe ndị bi n'Africa na-achị, ịkekọrịta ihe bụ akụkụ nke ndụ ọrụ ugbo. Ndị ọrụ ugbo na-acha ọcha, bụ ndị nwere ọtụtụ ala ahụ, anaghị enwekarị ike ịrụ ọrụ ugbo ha niile n'ihi enweghị ego. Ya mere, ha nwere ndị ọrụ ugbo Afrịka ka ha na-arụ ọrụ nke ukwuu na usoro ịgha mkpụrụ.

Na South Africa, Iwu Ala nke 1913 machibidoro ndị Afrịka nwe ala n'ebe ndị a họpụtara maka ndị ọcha ma belata ọnọdụ nke ọtụtụ ndị na-ekere òkè na ndị ọrụ ugbo na ndị ọrụ ubi.[5] N'afọ ndị 1960, enyemaka dị ukwuu nye ndị ọrụ ugbo ọcha pụtara na ọtụtụ ndị ọrụ ugpo nwere ike ịrụ ọrụ ugbo ha niile, na ịkekọrịta ọrụ.

Ndokwa ahụ apụtala ọzọ na mba ndị ọzọ dị n'Afrịka n'oge a, gụnyere Ghana na Zimbabwe. [6]

Onye na-akọ akụkọ ihe mere eme nke akụ na ụba bụ Pius S. Nyambara kwuru na ngwaọrụ akụkọ ihe mere mere eme Ebe Eurocentric dị ka "feudalism" ma ọ bụ "ohu" nke a na-ejikarị prefixes dị ike dịka "semi-" ma ọ bụ" "quasi-" eme ihe anaghị enyere aka n'ịghọta mmalite na ọrụ nke sharecropping na Africa.[6]

United States

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Ndị na-arụ ọrụ n'akụkụ ụzọ mgbe a chụpụrụ ha maka ịbụ ndị otu Southern Tenant Farmers Union (Jenụwarị 1936)

  Tupu Agha Obodo, a maara na sharecropping dị na Mississippi ma kwenyere na ọ dị na Tennessee. [7] Otú ọ dị, ọ bụghị ruo mgbe ọgba aghara akụ na ụba nke Agha Obodo America kpatara na njedebe nke ịgba ohu n'oge na mgbe Reconstruction gasịrị ka ọ gbasara na South.[8][9] A na-eche na nkesa na United States malitere na Natchez District, nke dị na Adams County, Mississippi na oche ya, Natchez.[10]

Mgbe agha ahụ gasịrị, gọọmentị etiti weghaara ubi na ala ndị ọzọ dị na South. Na Jenụwarị 1865, General William T. Sherman wepụtara Special Field Orders No. 15, nke mara ọkwa na ọ ga-enye ezinụlọ ndị a tọhapụrụ ọhụrụ 40 acres nke ala a weghaara n'àgwàetiti na mpaghara ndị dị n'ụsọ oké osimiri nke Georgia. Ọtụtụ kwenyere na a ga-agbatị iwu a na ndị niile bụbu ndị ohu na ezinụlọ ha dị ka ụgwọ maka mmeso ha na njedebe nke agha. N'oge ọkọchị nke afọ 1865, Onye isi ala Andrew Johnson, dị ka otu n'ime omume mbụ nke Reconstruction, kama nyere iwu ka e weghachite ala niile dị n'okpuru nchịkwa gọọmentị etiti nye ndị nwe ya bụ ndị e weghaara ya.

Ihe osise ụlọ nke onye na-ere ahịa na Texas na mmalite narị afọ nke 20 na Audie Murphy American Cotton Museum, na Greenville, Texas 2015

Ndị nwe ala ndịda ahụ si otú a hụ onwe ha nwere nnukwu ala mana enweghị akụ iji kwụọ ụgwọ maka ọrụ. Ha nọgidekwara na-enwe "nkwenye na òtù ndị omempụ na-enye ụzọ kachasị mma nke nhazi ọrụ", ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ ndị niile bụbu ndị ohu guzogidere. N'ịhọrọ "ịhazi onwe ha n'ime ìgwè ndị ikwu", yana "ibelata ohere maka mmekọrịta nwoke na nwanyị ojii site n'iwepụ ndị ikwu nwanyị ha n'ebe ọrụ ndị ọcha na-elekọta nke ọma", ndị ojii ndịda "kpebisiri ike iguzogide ụzọ ohu ochie".[11] Ọ bụghị n'ọnọdụ, ọtụtụ ndị bụbu ndị ohu, ndị a na-akpọ ugbu a ndị nweere onwe ha, enweghị ala ma ọ bụ ihe onwunwe ndị ọzọ nke ha, chọrọ ịrụ ọrụ iji kwado ezinụlọ ha. Usoro nkwekọrịta nke dabeere na ogho, nnukwu ihe ọkụkụ ego, mepụtara n'ihi ya. E kewara nnukwu ubi n'ime ala ndị ndị ọrụ ugbo nwere ike ịrụ ọrụ. Na mbido, ndị na-ekere òkè na South America bụ ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ ndị niile bụ ndị ohu ojii, mana n'ikpeazụ, a na-etinye ndị ọrụ ugbo ọcha na-enweghị ego n'ime usoro ahụ.[12][13] N'oge Reconstruction, Federal Freedmen's Bureau nyere iwu ndokwa maka ndị a tọhapụrụ ma dee ma mee ka nkwekọrịta ha dị irè.[14]

Ndị America na-arụ ọrụ n'otu akụkụ nke ubi ahụ n'onwe ha, na-akụkarị ogho, ụtaba, osikapa, shuga, na ihe ọkụkụ ndị ọzọ, ma nata ọkara nke mmepụta nke ngwugwu ahụ.[15] Ndị na-arụ ọrụ ugbo na-enwetakarị ngwá ọrụ ugbo ha na ngwongwo ndị ọzọ niile site n'aka onye nwe ala ha nwere nkwekọrịta.[16] Ndị nwe ala na-ekwu mkpebi ndị metụtara ngwakọta ihe ọkụkụ, ndị na-ekere òkè na-enwekarị nkwekọrịta iji ree òkè ha nke ihe ọkụkụ nye onye nwe ala, si otú a na-etinye ha n'okpuru ọnụahịa a na-achịkwa.[17] Na mgbakwunye na nke a, ndị nwe ala, na-eyi egwu na ha agaghị emezigharị nkwekọrịta ahụ na njedebe nke oge uto, nwere ike itinye nrụgide na ndị bi na ha.[17] Sharecropping na-egosipụtakarị nsogbu akụ na ụba, ebe ndị nwe ala nwere ikike akụ na ụba dị ukwuu.[18]

Ndị na-ekere òkè n'ogwe, Hale County, Alabama, 1936

N'oge Reconstruction Era, sharecropping bụ otu n'ime nhọrọ ole na ole maka ndị nweere onwe ha na-enweghị ego iji kwado onwe ha na ezinụlọ ha. Ihe ngwọta ndị ọzọ gụnyere usoro njikọ ihe ọkụkụ (ebe onye ọrụ ugbo na-agbatị ụgwọ maka mkpụrụ na ihe ndị ọzọ site n'aka onye ahịa), usoro ọrụ ịgbazite (ebe onye ugbo na na-akwụ ụgwọ ala ma na-edebe ihe ọkụkụ ha niile), na usoro ịkwụ ụgwọ (onye ọrụ na-enweta ụgwọ a kapịrị ọnụ mana ọ dịghị nke ihe ọkụkụ ya). A na-ewere ọrụ nkesa dị ka nke a na-eme n'akụkọ ihe mere eme na South America ka ọ bụrụ ihe na-arụpụta ihe karịa usoro osisi ndị òtù na-eji ndị ọrụ ohu, ọ bụ ezie na ọ naghị arụpụta ihe karịa teknụzụ ọrụ ugbo nke oge a.[14][19]

Ụlọ Sharecropper gosipụtara na Louisiana State Cotton Museum na Lake Providence, Louisiana (foto nke 2013)

Sharecropping nọgidere na-abụ ụlọ ọrụ dị mkpa n'ọtụtụ steeti ruo ọtụtụ iri afọ mgbe Agha Obodo gasịrị. Ka ọ na-erule mmalite afọ 1930, e nwere nde ndị ọrụ ugbo ọcha 5.5, ndị na-ekere òkè, na ndị ọrụ ugodi / ndị ọrụ na United States; na nde ndị isi ojii 3.[20] Na Tennessee, ndị na-ekere òkè na-arụ ọrụ ihe dịka otu ụzọ n'ụzọ atọ nke ụlọ ọrụ ugbo niile dị na steeti ahụ n'afọ ndị 1930, na ndị ọcha mejupụtara ụzọ abụọ n'ụzọ anọ ma ọ bụ karịa nke ndị na-ere òkè.[7] Na Mississippi, ka ọ na-erule afọ 1900, 36% nke ndị ọrụ ugbo ọcha niile bụ ndị bi na ya ma ọ bụ ndị na-ekere òkè, ebe 85% nke ndị ọrụ ubi ojii bụ. Na Georgia, ihe na-erughị ugbo 16,000 bụ ndị nwe ala ojii na 1910, ebe, n'otu oge ahụ, ndị Africa-America na-elekọta ugbo 106,738 dị ka ndị bi na ya.[21]

N'oge a, ndị na-ekere òkè malitere ịmepụta òtù ọrụ na-eme ngagharị iwe megide mmeso ọjọọ, malite na Tallapoosa County, Alabama na 1931 na Arkansas na 1934. Ndị otu Southern Tenant Farmers Union gụnyere ma ndị isi ojii ma ndị ọcha dara ogbenye, ndị jiri nzukọ, ngagharị iwe, na Ọgbaghara ọrụ mee ihe iji kwalite ọgwụgwọ ka mma. Ihe ịga nke ọma nke omume ndị a tụrụ ndị nwe ụlọ egwu ma were iwe, bụ ndị jiri usoro ime ihe ike zaghachi. A katọrọ ndị ọrụ ugbo na-enweghị ala na-alụ ọgụ megide usoro òkè, na-enye ha nsogbu site na iwu na iwu na-akwadoghị, ma na-awakpo ha site n'aka ndị ọrụ gọọmentị, ndị ọrụ ndị nwe ala, ma ọ bụ n'ọnọdụ ndị siri ike, ndị iwe ji. Ọgbaghara nke ndị Sharecroppers na Arkansas na Missouri Bootheel, ọgbaghara nke 1939 Missouri Sharecropers, edere na akụkọ Oh Freedom After While.[22] A tụlere nsogbu nke onye na-ere ahịa na abụ Sharecropper's Blues, nke Charlie Barnet na ndị egwú ya dere na 1944.

Usoro nkwekọrịta na US mụbara n'oge Great Depression site na ịmepụta ndị ọrụ ugbo na-akwụ ụgwọ na-esote ọdịda nke ọtụtụ obere ugbo n'ime Dustbowl. Nchịkọta ọdịnala dara mgbe igwe nke ọrụ ugbo ghọrọ mmalite akụ na ụba na ngwụcha afọ 1930 na mmalite afọ 1940. [7][23] N'ihi ya, a manyere ọtụtụ ndị na-arụ ọrụ ugbo, wee kwaga n'obodo ukwu iji rụọ ọrụ na ụlọ ọrụ mmepụta ihe, ma ọ bụ ghọọ ndị ọrụ na-akwaga na Western United States n'oge Agha Ụwa nke Abụọ. Ka ọ na-erule ngwụcha afọ 1960, òkè na-apụ n'anya na United States.   [citation needed]

Akụrụngwa na ọnọdụ akụ na ụba

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Ihe dị ka ụzọ abụọ n'ụzọ atọ nke ndị na-ekere òkè bụ ndị ọcha, ndị ọzọ bụ ndị ojii. Ndị na-arụ ọrụ ugbo, ndị kasị daa ogbenye n'ime ndị ogbenye, haziri maka ọnọdụ ka mma. Ndị Southern Tenant Farmers Union jikọtara agbụrụ mere ka ndị na-ekere òkè nweta uru n'afọ ndị 1930. Sharecropping belatara na 1940s n'ihi Great Depression, ugbo machineration, na ihe ndị ọzọ.[24]

Mmetụta

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Ụlọ ahịa ma ọ bụ ụlọ ahịa ụlọ ọrụ maka ndị na-ekere òkè na Lake Providence, Louisiana, dị ka ọ pụtara na narị afọ nke 19

Sharecropping nwere ike imerụ ndị bi na ya ahụ, na ọtụtụ ikpe nke ọnụego ọmụrụ nwa dị elu, owuwe ihe ubi a na-apụghị ịkọwapụta, na ndị nwe ala na ndị ahịa na-enweghị ụkpụrụ na-emekarị ka ezinụlọ ndị bi na ugbo nwee nnukwu ụgwọ. Ụgwọ ahụ na-agbakwunye kwa afọ na-ahapụ onye ọrụ ugbo n'ihe ize ndụ maka egwu na mmebi.[25] Ka o sina dị, o yiri ka ọ bụ ihe a na-apụghị izere ezere, na-enweghị ihe ọzọ dị njọ ọ gwụla ma ndị ọrụ ugbo hapụrụ ọrụ ugbo.[26][27]

Ndị nwe ala na-ahọrọ ịkekọrịta iji zere ụgwọ nchịkwa na izere nke na-eme na ubi na haciendas. A na-ahọrọ ya karịa ịgbazite ego n'ihi na ndị na-akwụ ụgwọ na-ewere ihe ize ndụ niile, na ọdịda ọ bụla nke owuwe ihe ubi ga-emerụ ha ahụ ọ bụghị onye nwe ụlọ ahụ. Ya mere, ha na-achọkarị ụgwọ dị ala karịa ndị na-ekere òkè.[28]

Ụfọdụ ndị na-ahụ maka akụ na ụba ekwuola na ịkekọrịta ihe abụghị iji ya eme ihe n'ụzọ na-ezighị ezi dị ka a na-ahụkarị ya. John Heath na Hans P. Binswanger dere na "ihe akaebe sitere gburugburu ụwa na-egosi na ịkekọrịta ihe na-abụkarị ụzọ maka ụlọ ọrụ ndị nwere onyinye dị iche iche iji jikọta ihe onwunwe maka uru ibe ha, imeri ihe mgbochi ụgwọ ma nyere aka ijikwa ihe ize ndụ".[29]

  1. Ndị ọrụ nwere ike ịgbazite ala site n'aka onye nwe ya maka ego ụfọdụ ma debe ihe ọkụkụ niile.
  2. Ndị ọrụ na-arụ ọrụ n'ala ma na-enweta ụgwọ ọrụ a kapịrị ọnụ site n'aka onye nwe ala mana ha na-edebe ụfọdụ ihe ọkụkụ.
  3. Ọ dịghị ego na-agbanwe aka mana onye ọrụ na onye nwe ala na-ejide òkè nke ihe ọkụkụ.

Dị ka ọkà mmụta mmekọrịta ọha na eze Edward Royce si kwuo, "ndị na-agbaso usoro Neoclassical" kwuru na ịkekọrịta ihe na-akpali ndị ọrụ site n'inye ha mmasị na ihe ọkụkụ ahụ. Ubi osisi ndị America na-akpachara anya maka ọdịmma a, n'ihi na ha chere na nke ahụ ga-eduga na ndị Africa America na-achọ ikike nke mmekọrịta. Ọtụtụ ndị ọrụ ojii gọnahụrụ ikike otu onye nke ndị nwe ala nwere olileanya inweta, na-eme ka mmekọrịta dị n'etiti ndị nwe ala na ndị na-ekere òkè sie ike.[17]

Sharecropping nwere ike ikwe ka ụmụ nwanyị nwee ike ịnweta ala a na-akọ ugbo, ọ bụ ezie na ọ bụghị dị ka ndị nwe ya, n'ebe a na-enye naanị ụmụ nwoke ikike nwe ya.

Echiche akụ na ụba nke òkè

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Ezinụlọ na-ekere òkè na Walker County, Alabama (ihe dị ka 1937)

Echiche nke nkwekọrịta nkwekọrịta bụ nke Alfred Marshall na-ewu ewu n'okpuru akwụkwọ nke isii, Isi nke X.14 nke Ụkpụrụ ebe o gosipụtara adịghị arụ ọrụ nke nkwekọ ọrụ ugbo.[30] Steven N.S. Cheung (1969), mara echiche a aka, na-egosi na na asọmpi zuru oke na enweghị ụgwọ azụmahịa, nkwekọrịta nkwekọrịta ga-aha ka ahịa ọrụ asọmpi ma ya mere rụọ ọrụ nke ọma. [31][32]

O gosikwara na n'ihu ụgwọ azụmahịa, enwere ike ịhọrọ nkwekọrịta òkè karịa nkwekọrịta ụgwọ ma ọ bụ nkwekọrịta ịgbazite - n'ihi mbelata nke ọrụ na inye nkwekọrịta ịkekọrịta ihe ize ndụ. Joseph Stiglitz (1974,[33] 1988),[34] tụrụ aro na ọ bụrụ na nkwekọrịta nkwekọrịta bụ naanị nkwekọrịta ọrụ, mgbe ahụ ọ bụ naanị nkwenye abụọ na mgbanwe ala ga-eme ka arụmọrụ ọha na eze dị mma site n'iwepụ mkpa maka nkwekọrịta ndị ọrụ na mbụ.

Reid (1973), Murrel (1983), Roumasset (1995) na Allen na Lueck (2004) nyere echiche ọnụahịa azụmahịa nke nkwekọrịta nkwekọrịta, ebe ịgbazite bụ mmekọrịta karịa nkwekọrịta ọrụ na ma onye nwe ụlọ na onye na-akwụ ụgwọ na-enye ọtụtụ ntinye.[35][36][37][38] A rụkwara ụka na enwere ike ịkọwa ụlọ ọrụ na-ekere òkè site na ihe ndị dị ka enweghị nkwekọrịta ihe ọmụma (Hallagan, 1978; Allen, 1982; Muthoo, 1998), Ihe ize ndụ omume (Reid, 1976; Eswaran na Kotwal, 1985; Ghatak na Pandey, 2000), mgbanwe ọnụahịa (Sen, 2011) ma ọ bụ obere ibu ọrụ (Shetty, 1988; Basu, 2001; Bupta ).[39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50]

Hụkwa

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Ebem si dee

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  1. ↑ Jeffery Paige, Agrarian Revolution, page 373
  2. ↑ Sanval (2016-01-15). Optimal groundwater management in Pakistan's Indus Water Basin (in en). Intl Food Policy Res Inst. 
  3. ↑ Chaudhuri (2000-01-01). "Sharecropping contracts in rural India: A note". Journal of Contemporary Asia 30 (1): 99–107. DOI:10.1080/00472330080000071. ISSN 0047-2336. 
  4. ↑ Byres (2005-08-02). Sharecropping and Sharecroppers (in en). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-78003-6. 
  5. ↑ The Native Land Act is passed | South African History Online. Sahistory.org.za. Archived from the original on 14 October 2010. Retrieved on 22 October 2023.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Pius S. Nyambara (2003). Rural Landlords, Rural Tenants, and the Sharecropping Complex in Gokwe, Northwestern Zimbabwe, 1980s–2002. Archived from the original on 2006-03-26. Retrieved on 2006-05-18., Centre for Applied Social Sciences, University of Zimbabwe and Land Tenure Center, University of Wisconsin–Madison, March 2003 (200Kb PDF) Kpọpụta njehie: Invalid <ref> tag; name "nyambara" defined multiple times with different content
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Robert Tracy McKenzie, "Sharecropping", Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture.
  8. ↑ (2013) in Sharon Monteith: The Cambridge Companion to the Literature of the American South. Cambridge U.P.. ISBN 9781107036789. 
  9. ↑ Joseph D. Reid, "Sharecropping as an understandable market response: The postbellum South." Journal of Economic History (1973) 33#1 pp. 106–130. in JSTOR
  10. ↑ Ronald L. F. Davis "The U. S. Army and the Origins of Sharecropping in the Natchez District—A Case Study" The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 62, No.1 (January, 1977), pp. 60–80 in JSTOR
  11. ↑ Jones, Jaqueline. Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family from Slavery to the Present. Basic Books, 1985.
  12. ↑ Ronald L. F. Davis "The U. S. Army and the Origins of Sharecropping in the Natchez District—A Case Study" The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 62, No.1 (January 1977), pp. 60–80 in JSTOR
  13. ↑ Eva O'Donovan, Becoming Free in the Cotton South (2007); Gavin Wright, Old South, New South: Revolutions in the Southern Economy Since the Civil War (1986); Roger L. Ransom and David Beckham, One Kind of Freedom: The Economic Consequences of Emancipation (2nd ed. 2008)
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Gregorie, Anne King (1954). History of Sumter County, South Carolina, p. 274. Library Board of Sumter County.  Kpọpụta njehie: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":2" defined multiple times with different content
  15. ↑ Woodman, Harold D. (1995). New South – New Law: The legal foundations of credit and labor relations in the Postbellum agricultural South. Louisiana State University Press. ISBN 0-8071-1941-5. 
  16. ↑ Mandle, Jay R. Not Slave, Not Free: The African American Economic Experience Since the Civil War. Duke University Press, 1992, 22.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Royce (1993). "The Rise of Southern Sharecropping", in Royce: The Origins of Southern Sharecropping. Temple University Press, 181–222. ISBN 9781566390699.  Kpọpụta njehie: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Temple University Press" defined multiple times with different content
  18. ↑ Ransom, Roger L., and Richard Sutch. One Kind of Freedom: The Economic Consequences of Emancipation. 2nd edition. Cambridge England ; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001, 149.
  19. ↑ Larry J. Griffin (1995). The South As an American Problem. U. of Georgia Press. ISBN 9780820317526. 
  20. ↑ The Rockabilly Legends; They Called It Rockabilly Long Before they Called It Rock and Roll by Jerry Naylor and Steve Halliday DVD
  21. ↑ Geisen (January 26, 2007). Sharecropping. New Georgia Encyclopedia. Retrieved on April 23, 2019.
  22. ↑ California Newsreel - Film and Video for Social Change Since 1968. Newsreel.org. Retrieved on 22 October 2023.
  23. ↑ Gordon Marshall, "Sharecropping," Encyclopedia.com, 1998.
  24. ↑ Sharecropping. Slavery by Another Name. PBS. Retrieved on 7 December 2021.
  25. ↑ Sharecropping | Slavery By Another Name Bento | PBS. Sharecropping | Slavery By Another Name Bento | PBS.
  26. ↑ Rufus B. Spain (1967). At Ease in Zion: Social History of Southern Baptists, 1865-1900. University of Alabama Press. ISBN 9780817350383. 
  27. ↑ Johnny E. Williams (2008). African American Religion and the Civil Rights Movement in Arkansas. Univ. Press of Mississippi. ISBN 9781604731866. 
  28. ↑ Sharecropping and Sharecroppers, T J Byres
  29. ↑ Heath (October 1998). "Chapter 3: Policy-Induced Effects of Natural Resource Degradation: The Case of Colombia", in Lutz: Agriculture and the Environment: Perspectives on Sustainable Rural Development. Washington, DC: The World Bank, 32. ISBN 0-8213-4249-5. Retrieved on 2011-04-01. 
  30. ↑ Alfred Marshall (1920). Principles of Economics, 8th, London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd. 
  31. ↑ Cheung (1969). "Transaction Costs, Risk Aversion, and the Choice of Contractual Arrangements". Journal of Law & Economics 12 (1): 23–42. DOI:10.1086/466658. Retrieved on 2009-06-14. 
  32. ↑ Formalized in Roumasset (1979). "Sharecropping, Production Externalities and the Theory of Contracts". American Journal of Agricultural Economics 61 (4): 640–647. DOI:10.2307/1239911. 
  33. ↑ Stiglitz (1974). "Incentives and Risk Sharing in Sharecropping". The Review of Economic Studies 41 (2): 219–255 j. DOI:10.2307/2296714. Retrieved on 2019-07-06. 
  34. ↑ Stiglitz (1988). "Principal And Agent". Princeton, Woodrow Wilson School – Discussion Paper (12). Retrieved on 2009-06-14. 
  35. ↑ Reid (March 1973). "Sharecropping As An Understandable Market Response: The Post-Bellum South". The Journal of Economic History 33 (1): 106–130. DOI:10.1017/S0022050700076476. 
  36. ↑ Murrell (Spring 1983). "The Economics of Sharing: A Transactions Cost Analysis of Contractual Choice in Farming". The Bell Journal of Economics 14 (1): 283–293. DOI:10.2307/3003555. 
  37. ↑ Roumasset (March 1995). "The nature of the agricultural firm". Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 26 (2): 161–177. DOI:10.1016/0167-2681(94)00007-2. 
  38. ↑ Allen (2004). The Nature of the Farm: Contracts, Risk, and Organization in Agriculture. MIT Press, 258. ISBN 9780262511858. 
  39. ↑ Hallagan (1978). "Self-selection by contractual choice and the theory of sharecropping". Bell Journal of Economics 9 (2): 344–354. DOI:10.2307/3003586. 
  40. ↑ Allen (1982). "On share contracts and screening". Bell Journal of Economics 13 (2): 541–547. DOI:10.2307/3003473. 
  41. ↑ Muthoo (1998). "Renegotiation-proof tenurial contracts as screening mechanisms". Journal of Development Economics 56: 1–26. DOI:10.1016/S0304-3878(98)00050-9. 
  42. ↑ Reid (1976). "Sharecropping and agricultural uncertainty". Economic Development and Cultural Change 24 (3): 549–576. DOI:10.1086/450897. 
  43. ↑ Eswaran (1985). "A theory of contractual structure in agriculture". American Economic Review 75 (3): 352–367. 
  44. ↑ Ghatak (2000). "Contract choice in agriculture with joint moral hazard in effort and risk". Journal of Development Economics 63 (2): 303–326. DOI:10.1016/S0304-3878(00)00116-4. 
  45. ↑ Roy (2001). "Intertemporal discounting and tenurial contracts". Journal of Development Economics 64 (2): 417–436. DOI:10.1016/S0304-3878(00)00144-9. 
  46. ↑ Sen (2011). "A theory of sharecropping: the role of price behavior and imperfect competition". Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 80 (1): 181–199. DOI:10.1016/j.jebo.2011.03.006. 
  47. ↑ Shetty (1988). "Limited liability, wealth differences, and the tenancy ladder in agrarian economies". Journal of Development Economics 29: 1–22. DOI:10.1016/0304-3878(88)90068-5. 
  48. ↑ Basu (1992). "Limited liability and the existence of share tenancy". Journal of Development Economics 38: 203–220. DOI:10.1016/0304-3878(92)90026-6. 
  49. ↑ Sengupta (1997). "Limited liability, moral hazard and share tenancy". Journal of Development Economics 52 (2): 393–407. DOI:10.1016/S0304-3878(96)00444-0. 
  50. ↑ Ray (2001). "Limited liability, contractual choice and the tenancy ladder". Journal of Development Economics 66: 289–303. DOI:10.1016/S0304-3878(01)00163-8. 
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