Ụkpụrụ ikpachapụ anya

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Ụkpụrụ ikpachapụ anya (ma ọ bụ ụzọ ikpachapụ anya) bụ ụzọ sara mbara nke epistemological, nkà ihe ọmụma na iwu maka ihe ọhụrụ nwere ike ịkpata mmerụ ahụ mgbe ihe ọmụma sayensị dị ukwuu banyere okwu ahụ enweghị. Ọ na-emesi ike ịkpachara anya, ịkwụsịtụ na nyocha tupu ịbanye n'ime ihe ọhụrụ nke nwere ike ịbụ ọdachi.[1] Ndị nkatọ na-ekwu na ọ bụ ihe na-edoghị anya, na-akwụsị onwe ya, na-abụghị nke sayensị na ihe mgbochi maka ọganihu.[2]

N'ihe gbasara injinia, ụkpụrụ mkpachapu anya na-egosipụta onwe ya dị ka ihe nchekwa, nke a tụlere n'ụzọ zuru ezu na monograph nke Elishakoff.[3] O doro anya na Belindor tụrụ aro ya, na injinia obodo, na 1729.[4] Ndị injinia na ndị ọkà ihe ọmụma na-amụkarị mmekọrịta dị n'etiti ihe nchekwa na ntụkwasị obi.[5][4][6]

Ndị na-eme iwu na-ejikarị ụkpụrụ ahụ eme ihe n'ọnọdụ ebe enwere ike imerụ ahụ site na ịme mkpebi ụfọdụ (dịka ịme otu usoro ihe omume) na ihe akaebe na-akwadobeghị. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, gọọmentị nwere ike ikpebi igbochi ma ọ bụ gbochie mwepụta nke ọgwụ ma ọ bụ teknụzụ ọhụrụ ruo mgbe a nwalere ya nke ọma. Ụkpụrụ ahụ kwetara na ọ bụ ezie na ọganihu nke sayensị na nkà na ụzụ na-ebutekarị uru dị ukwuu nye ụmụ mmadụ, ọ nyekwara aka na ịmepụta ihe egwu na ihe egwu ọhụrụ. Ọ na-egosi na enwere ọrụ mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya iji chebe ọha na eze pụọ na mmerụ ahụ, mgbe nyocha sayensị achọpụtala ihe egwu dị mma. Ekwesịrị ime ka nchekwa ndị a dị jụụ naanị ma ọ bụrụ na nchoputa sayensị ọzọ pụtakwara nke na-enye ezigbo ihe akaebe na ọ nweghị mmerụ ahụ ga-ebute.

Ụkpụrụ ahụ aghọwo ihe ndabere maka ọtụtụ nkwekọrịta na nkwupụta mba ụwa na nkwupụta na mpaghara mmepe na-adịgide adịgide, nchedo gburugburu ebe obibi, ahụike, azụmahịa, na nchekwa nri, ọ bụ ezie na mgbe ụfọdụ ọ dọtara arụmụka banyere otu esi akọwa ya n'ụzọ ziri ezi ma tinye ya n'ọrụ na ọnọdụ dị mgbagwoju anya nwere ọtụtụ ihe ize ndụ.[7] N'ime usoro iwu ụfọdụ, dịka iwu nke European Union, itinye ụkpụrụ nchebe n'ọrụ emeela ka ọ bụrụ ihe iwu chọrọ n'akụkụ ụfọdụ nke iwu.[8]

Mmalite na echiche[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

A na-ewere echiche "ụkpụrụ mkpachapu anya" dị ka nke sitere na Bekee site na ntụgharị nke okwu German Vorsorgeprinzip na 1970s na nzaghachi maka mmebi ọhịa na mmetọ oké osimiri, ebe ndị omeiwu Germany nabatara iwu ikuku dị ọcha nke machibidoro iji ihe ụfọdụ a na-enyo enyo na ha na-akpata mmebi gburugburu ebe obibi ọ bụ ezie na ihe akaebe nke mmetụta ha enweghị nkwubi n'oge ahụ.[9] E webatara echiche ahụ n'ime iwu gburugburu ebe obibi yana usoro ndị ọzọ ọhụrụ (n'oge ahụ) dịka "onye na-emetọ na-akwụ ụgwọ", ụkpụrụ nke mgbochi mmetọ na ibu ọrụ maka ịdị ndụ nke usoro okike n'ọdịnihu.[1]

Hans Jonas kpọsara ụkpụrụ ịkpachapu anya na nkà ihe ọmụma n'ihe odide 1979, The Imperative of Responsibility, ebe Jonas rụrụ ụka na nkà na ụzụ agbanweela oke mmetụta nke omume mmadụ na, dị ka nke a, ụkpụrụ omume ga-agbanwerịrị ka mmetụta dị anya dị anya. Ekwesịrị ịtụle nke omume mmadụ ugbu a. Ya maxim e mere ka embody the precautionary ụkpụrụ na ya ọgwụ na onye kwesịrị "Mee ka mmetụta nke omume gị na-dakọtara na-adịgide adịgide nke ezi ndụ mmadụ" ma ọ bụ, kwuru n'ụzọ ọzọ, "Adịla imebi ọnọdụ maka ebighị ebi n'ihu nke. mmadụ n'ụwa".[10] Iji mezuo nke a, Jonas rụrụ ụka maka ịzụlite àgwà nlezianya, ọbụna egwu, maka omume ndị nwere ike itinye ọdịnihu nke ihe a kpọrọ mmadụ ma ọ bụ biosphere nke kwadoro ya n'ihe ize ndụ.

N'afọ 1988, Konrad von Moltke kọwara echiche German maka ndị na-ege ntị na Britain, nke ọ sụgharịrị n'asụsụ Bekee dị ka Precautionary Principle (ụkpụrụ mkpachapu anya).[11] 

Na akụ na ụba, a na-enyocha ụkpụrụ mkpachapu anya n'ihe gbasara "mmetụta na mkpebi ezi uche dị na ya", nke "mmekọrịta nke enweghị ike ịgbanwe" na "ejighị n'aka". Ndị edemede dị ka Epstein (1980) na Arrow and Fischer (1974) na-egosi na "enweghị ngbanwe nke ihe ga-esi na ya pụta n'ọdịnihu" na-emepụta "ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ nhọrọ" nke kwesịrị ime ka ọha mmadụ "na-anọpụ iche" nwee mmasị na mkpebi ndị dị ugbu a nke na-enye ohere maka mgbanwe n'ọdịnihu.[12][13] Gollier et al. kwubiri na "nnukwu ejighị n'aka nke sayensị banyere nkesa nke ihe ize ndụ n'ọdịnihu bụ, nnukwu ọdịiche nke nkwenkwe kwesịrị ime ka ọha mmadụ mee ihe mgbochi siri ike taa".[14]

Ụkpụrụ ahụ sikwa na nkwenkwe okpukpe na a ga-egbochi mpaghara ụfọdụ nke sayensị na teknụzụ dịka ha "ndị nọ n'ala Chineke", dịka Prince Charles na Pope Benedict XVI kwuru.[9]

Nkọwa[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Ọtụtụ nkọwa nke ụkpụrụ ịkpachara anya dị: Enwere ike ịkọwa ịkpachara anya dị ka "ịkpachara anya tupu oge eruo", "ịkpachara anya na-eme n'ọnọdụ nke ejighị n'aka", ma ọ bụ amamihe mara. Echiche abụọ dị na isi nke ụkpụrụ ahụ.[15] 

  • ngosipụta nke mkpa ndị na-eme mkpebi chọrọ ịtụ anya mmerụ ahụ tupu ya emee. N'ime ihe a, a na-ahụ mgbanwe doro anya nke ibu ọrụ nke ihe akaebe: n'okpuru ụkpụrụ nchebe ọ bụ ọrụ nke onye na-akwado ọrụ iji chọpụta na ọrụ a tụrụ aro agaghị (ma ọ bụ o yighị ka ọ ga-eme) kpatara nnukwu mmerụ ahụ.
  • echiche nke nha nhata nke ihe ize ndụ na ọnụahịa na ike nke ihe a tụrụ aro.

Otu n'ime ntọala bụ isi nke ụkpụrụ ịkpachara anya, yana nkọwa zuru ụwa ọnụ nabatara, sitere na ọrụ Rio Conference, ma ọ bụ "Earth Summit" na 1992. Ụkpụrụ nke ịrị na ịse nke nkwupụta Rio na-ekwụ:[16][1]

Iji kpuchido gburugburu ebe obibi, steeti ga-etinyerịrị usoro ịkpachara anya dịka ike ha siri dị. N'ebe enwere egwu nke mmebi dị njọ ma ọ bụ nke a na-apụghị ịgbagha agbagha, enweghị nkwenye sayensị zuru oke agaghị eji ya mee ihe kpatara yigharịrị usoro dị ọnụ ahịa iji gbochie mmebi gburugburu ebe obibi. – Nkwuputa Rio

N'afọ 1998, ụlọ ọrụ sayensị na gburugburu ebe obibi kpọrọ Wingspread Statement on the Precautionary Principle ma mechie ya na usoro a, nke Stewart Brand kọwara dị ka "nke doro anya na nke a na-ekwukarị":[9]

Mgbe ihe omume na-ebulite ihe iyi egwu nke mmerụ ahụ na ahụike mmadụ ma ọ bụ gburugburu ebe obibi, ekwesịrị ịme ihe mgbochi ọbụlagodi ma ọ bụrụ na emebeghi mmekọrịta ụfọdụ na-akpata na mmetụta nke ọma na sayensị. N'okwu a, onye na-akwado ihe omume, karịa ọha mmadụ, kwesịrị iburu ibu akaebe.

Na Febụwarị afọ 2000, Commission nke European Communities kwuru na nkwurịta okwu sitere na Commission on the Precautionary Principle na, "Akọwaghị ụkpụrụ ịkpachara anya na Nkwekọrịta nke European Union, nke na-edepụta ya [Ụkpụrụ Akpachara anya] naanị otu ugboro - ka Mana n'omume, oke ya ka sara mbara karị, yana kpọmkwem ebe mbido-ebumnobi-sayensị-ntụle na-egosi na e nwere ihe ezi uche dị na ya maka nchegbu na mmetụta nwere ike dị ize ndụ na gburugburu ebe obibi, mmadụ, anụmanụ ma ọ bụ [na] ahụike osisi nwere ike. ekwekọghị n'ọkwa dị elu nke nchekwa [maka ihe] ahọpụtara maka obodo".[17] 

The January 2000 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety na-ekwu, n'ihe gbasara esemokwu banyere GMOs: "Enweghị nkwenye sayensị n'ihi ozi sayensị na-ezughị ezu ... agaghị egbochi ndị otu mbubata, iji zere ma ọ bụ belata mmetụta ọjọọ dị otú ahụ, site n'ime mkpebi, dịka o kwesịrị, n'ihi mbubata nke ihe dị ndụ gbanwere agbanwe a na-ekwu maka ya".[18] 

Ntinye aka[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Mmasị dị iche iche nke ìgwè dị iche iche na-anọchite anya ụkpụrụ ahụ mere ka nnukwu mgbanwe nke nhazi ya: otu nnyocha chọpụtara usoro ịrị na anọ dị iche iche dị na nkwekọrịta na nkwupụta ndị na-abụghị nkwekọrịta.[19] R.B. Stewart (2002) belatara ụkpụrụ nchebe na nsụgharị anọ:[20]

  • Enweghị ntụkwasị obi sayensị ekwesịghị igbochi usoro nchịkwa nke ọrụ ndị nwere ike ibute nnukwu mmerụ ahụ (enweghị mgbochi).
  • Nchịkwa nchịkwa kwesịrị itinye oke nchekwa; ọrụ kwesịrị igbochi n'okpuru ọkwa nke a na-ahụ ma ọ bụ buru amụma na ọ nweghị mmetụta ọjọọ (akụkụ nchekwa).
  • Ọrụ ndị na-egosi ihe a na-ejighị n'aka maka mmerụ ahụ dị ukwuu kwesịrị ịbụ ndị a chọrọ na teknụzụ kachasị mma iji belata ihe ize ndụ nke mmerụ ahụ ọ gwụla ma onye na-akwado ọrụ ahụ gosipụtara na ha enweghị ihe ize ndụ dị ịrịba ama nke mmerụ (BAT).
  • A ga-amachibido ọrụ ndị na-enweghị ike ijide n'aka maka mmerụ ahụ dị ukwuu ọ gwụla ma onye na-akwado ọrụ ahụ gosipụtara na ọ nweghị ihe ize ndụ nke mmerụ ahụ (mmachibido iwu).

Carolyn Raffensperger nke mgbakọ Wingspread tinyere ụkpụrụ ahụ na-emegide usoro ndị dabeere na njikwa ihe ize ndụ na nyocha uru.[9] Dave Brower (Ndị enyi nke ụwa) kwubiri na "a ga-ewere teknụzụ niile dịka ikpe mara ruo mgbe egosiri na ọ dị ọcha".[9] Freeman Dyson kọwara itinye n'ọrụ ụkpụrụ nchebe dị ka "n'amaghị ama otu akụkụ", dịka ọmụmaatụ mgbe ejiri ya dị ka ihe ziri ezi iji bibie osisi nyocha nke injinia mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa ma yie ndị nchọpụta egwu n'agbanyeghị ihe akaebe sayensị na-egosi enweghị mmerụ ahụ.[9]

Ụkpụrụ ịkpachapu anya na-ekwu na ọ bụrụ na ụfọdụ omume na-ebu ọbụna ohere dịpụrụ adịpụ nke mmebi ihe ndị dị ndụ na-enweghị atụ, mgbe ahụ i kwesịghị ime ya, n'agbanyeghị otú uru omume ahụ nwere ike isi dị ukwuu. Anaghị ekwe ka ị kwụzi ụgwọ akwụ ụgwọ megide uru mgbe ị na-ekpebi ihe ị ga-eme. – Freeman Dyson, akụkọ sitere n'ọgbakọ World Economic Forum n'afọ 2001

Dị ka Rupert na O'Riordan kwuru, ihe ịma aka na itinye ụkpụrụ ahụ n'ọrụ bụ "n'ime ka o doo anya na enweghị ihe doro anya, ma ọ bụ enweghị nyocha zuru oke nke ihe akaebe, abụghị ihe mgbochi maka ihe ọhụrụ, ọ bụrụhaala na enweghị ezi uche dị na ya nke nnukwu mmerụ ahụ".[1] Enweghị ngwa a na-eme ka ụkpụrụ ahụ bụrụ "ịkwụsị onwe ya" dịka Stewart Brand si kwuo, n'ihi na "ọ dịghị ihe e guzobere n'ụzọ zuru oke" na sayensị, malite na ụkpụrụ nchebe n'onwe ya ma gụnyere "ike ndọda ma ọ bụ evolushọn Darwinian". Ngwa dị mma kwesịrị ijide n'aka na "a ga-eme ihe nchebe" naanị "n'oge mmalite" na ka "ihe akaebe sayensị dị mkpa na-eguzobe", usoro nchịkwa kwesịrị ịzaghachi ihe akaebe ahụ.[9]

Nke siri ike na nke na-adịghị ike[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Nlezianya siri ike na-ekwu na a chọrọ iwu mgbe ọ bụla enwere ihe ize ndụ maka ahụike, nchekwa, ma ọ bụ gburugburu ebe obibi, ọbụlagodi na ihe akaebe na-akwado ya bụ ịkọ nkọ na ọbụna ma ọ bụrụ na ego ego nke iwu ahụ dị elu. Na 1982, Charter World nke United Nations maka Nature nyere nkwado mbụ nke mba ụwa maka ụdị iwu ahụ siri ike, na-atụ aro na mgbe "a ghọtachaghị mmetụta ọjọọ nwere ike, ọrụ ahụ ekwesịghị ịga n'ihu".[21] Nkwupụta Wingspread nke a kpọsara n'ọtụtụ ebe, site na nzukọ nke ndị na-ahụ maka gburugburu ebe obibi na 1998, bụ ihe atụ ọzọ nke nsụgharị siri ike.[22] A pụkwara ịkpọ nchebe siri ike dị ka ụkpụrụ "enweghị mkpesa", ebe a na-adịghị atụle ụgwọ na mgbochi mgbochi.[23]

Nlezianya na-adịghị ike na-ekwu na enweghị ihe akaebe sayensị anaghị egbochi ime ihe ma ọ bụrụ na mmebi ga-abụ ihe siri ike na nke a na-apụghị ịgbanwe agbanwe. Ụmụ mmadụ na-eme nchedo na-adịghị mma kwa ụbọchị, ma na-akwụkarị ụgwọ, iji zere ihe ize ndụ ndị na-ejighị n'aka: anyị anaghị agagharị n'ebe ndị dị ize ndụ n'abalị, anyị na-emega ahụ, anyị na anyị na-azụ ihe nchọpụta anwụrụ ọkụ, anyị na eriri anyị.[24][22]

Dị ka akwụkwọ nke Ngalaba Na-ahụ Maka Akụ̀ na Ụba nke New Zealand si kwuo,

Ụdị na-adịghị ike [nke Ụkpụrụ Akpachara anya] bụ nke kachasị mma ma na-enye ohere ka e mee ihe mgbochi n'agbanyeghị ejighị n'aka, ma ọ dịghị achọ ha (dịka, Rio Declaration 1992; United Nations Framework Convention of Climate Change 1992). Iji mejuo ọnụ ụzọ nke mmerụ ahụ, a ga-enwerịrị ụfọdụ ihe akaebe metụtara ma ihe nwere ike ime yana oke nsonaazụ ya. Ụfọdụ, ma ọ bụghị ihe niile, chọrọ nlebara anya maka ụgwọ ọrụ nke usoro ịkpachara anya. Usoro adịghị ike anaghị egbochi ịtụle uru megide ọnụ ahịa ya. Ihe ndị na-abụghị ejighị n'aka sayensị, gụnyere ihe gbasara akụ na ụba, nwere ike inye ihe ndabere ziri ezi maka yigharịrị ihe omume. N'okpuru usoro adịghị ike, ihe a chọrọ iji gosi na ọ dị mkpa ime ihe (ibu nke ihe akaebe) na-adaberekarị na ndị na-akwado ịkpachara anya. Ekwupụtaghị aha maka ọrụ maka mmebi gburugburu ebe obibi. Ụdị siri ike na-akwado ma ọ bụ chọọ usoro ịkpachara anya ma ụfọdụ na-ewepụtakwa ụgwọ maka mmebi gburugburu ebe obibi, nke bụ nke ọma ụdị siri ike nke "ego mmetọ". Dịka ọmụmaatụ, Earth Charter na-ekwu, sị: "Mgbe ihe ọmụma dị oke, tinye usoro nlezianya anya ... Tinye ibu ihe akaebe n'ahụ ndị na-arụ ụka na ọrụ a tụrụ aro agaghị akpata nnukwu mmerụ ahụ, ma mee ka ndị na-ahụ maka ọrụ nwee nsogbu maka gburugburu ebe obibi." Mweghachi nke akaebe chọrọ ndị na-atụpụta ihe omume iji gosi na ngwaahịa, usoro ma ọ bụ teknụzụ dị “mma” nke ọma tupu akwadoro ya. Ịchọ ihe akaebe nke "enweghị mmerụ ahụ gburugburu ebe obibi" tupu ihe omume ọ bụla pụta na-egosi na ọha na eze adịghị njikere ịnakwere ihe ize ndụ gburugburu ebe obibi, n'agbanyeghị uru akụ na ụba ma ọ bụ ọha mmadụ nwere ike ibilite (Peterson, 2006). Na oke, ihe a chọrọ nwere ike ịgụnye mmachibido iwu na mmachibido iwu na klaasị niile nke mmemme ma ọ bụ ihe nwere ike iyi egwu (Cooney, 2005). Ka oge na-aga, a na-enwe mgbanwe nke nta nke nta nke ụkpụrụ ịkpachara anya site na ihe na-egosi na Rio Declaration na ụdị siri ike nke na-arụ ụka na [onye] na-eme ka ihe mgbochi na mmepe na-enweghị ihe àmà siri ike na ọ gaghị emerụ ahụ.[25]

Nkwekọrịta mba ụwa na nkwupụta[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Inwale "Ụkpụrụ" na "ụzọ ịsị mee ihe"[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Enweghị mmeghe maka ụkpụrụ nchebe ga-ezuru ezu na-enweghị nkọwa dị mkpirikpi banyere ọdịiche dị n'etiti ụkpụrụ nchebe na usoro nchebe. Ụkpụrụ nke ịrị na ịse nke Rio Declaration 1992 na-ekwu na: "iji chebe gburugburu ebe obibi, steeti ga-eji usoro nchebe mee ihe n'ọtụtụ ebe dịka ikike ha si dị. N'ebe enwere egwu nke nnukwu ma ọ bụ nke a na-apụghị ịgbanwe agbanwe, enweghị nkwenye sayensị zuru oke agaghị eji ya mee ihe dị ka ihe kpatara iwepụ usoro dị ọnụ ala iji gbochie mmebi gburugburu ebe obibi. Dị ka Garcia (1995) kwuru, "okwu ahụ, nke yiri nke ụkpụrụ ahụ, dịtụ iche na nke ahụ: ọ ghọtara na enwere ike inwe ọdịiche na ikike mpaghara iji tinye usoro ahụ n'ọrụ, ọ na-akpọkwa maka ọnụahịa na itinye usoro ahụ n"ọrụ, dịka, na-eburu ego na mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya n'uche. A na-ewere "ụzọ" dị nro dị ka ime ka "ụkpụrụ" dị nfe.

"Dịka Recuerda si kwuo, ọdịiche dị n'etiti ụkpụrụ ịkpachara anya na ụzọ ịkpachara anya na-agbasawanye na, n'ọnọdụ ụfọdụ, esemokwu. Na mkparita uka nke nkwupụta mba ụwa, United States emegideghị iji usoro okwu ahụ eme ihe n'ihi na okwu a nwere nkọwa pụrụ iche. n'asụsụ iwu, n'ihi na ụkpụrụ nke iwu bụ isi iyi nke iwu, nke a pụtara na ọ dị mkpa, ya mere, ụlọ ikpe nwere ike ịkagbu ma ọ bụ kwado mkpebi site na itinye ụkpụrụ nlezianya anya. Ọ bụghị echiche dị mfe ma ọ bụ desideratum kama ọ bụ isi iyi nke iwu, nke a bụ ọnọdụ iwu nke ụkpụrụ ịkpachara anya na European Union N'aka nke ọzọ, 'ụzọ' anaghị enwekarị otu ihe ọ pụtara, ọ bụ ezie na n'ọnọdụ ụfọdụ. Ụzọ a ga-esi kpachara anya bụ ihe a na-eji achọpụta ihe ize ndụ nke onye ọ bụla nwere ezi uche nwere (Recuerda, 2008)[26]

Njikọ Europe[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

N'ụbọchị nke abụọ n'ọnwa Febụwarị n'afọ 2000, European Commission wepụtara nkwukọrịta na ụkpụrụ ịkpachapu anya, nke ọ nabatara usoro maka itinye echiche a n'ọrụ, mana n'enyeghị nkọwa zuru ezu banyere ya.[17] Paragraf nke abụọ nke edemede 191 nke Nkwekọrịta Lisbon na-ekwu na:

Amụma ndị otu na gburugburu ebe obibi ga-achọ n'ọkwa dị elu nke nchebe na-eburu n'uche ọnọdụ dị iche iche na mpaghara dị iche iche nke Union. Ọ ga-adabere n'ụkpụrụ akpachapụ anya yana n'ụkpụrụ ndị ekwesịrị ime ihe mgbochi, na mmebi gburugburu ebe obibi kwesịrị imezi ihe kacha mkpa na isi iyi yana na ndị na-emetọ ihe kwesịrị ịkwụ ụgwọ.[27]

  Mgbe a nabatara nkwukọrịta nke European Commission na ụkpụrụ nchebe, ụkpụrụ ahụ abịala na-eme ka ọtụtụ iwu EU mara, gụnyere ebe ndị karịrị iwu gburugburu ebe obibi. Ka ọ na-erule afọ 2006, a na-etinye ya n'ime iwu EU "n'ihe ndị dị ka nchekwa ngwaahịa n'ozuzu ya, ojiji nke ihe mgbakwunye maka iji ya na nri anụmanụ, ọkụ nke ihe mkpofu, na nhazi nke ihe ndị a gbanwere mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa". Site na itinye ya n'ọrụ na iwu ikpe, ọ ghọrọ "ụkpụrụ iwu EU n'ofe83[28][28] 

Na ikpe T-74/00 Artegodan, Ụlọikpe Ukwu (n'oge ahụ Ụlọikpe nke Mbụ) yiri ka ọ dị njikere iwepụta site na ndokwa dị mkpirikpi maka ụkpụrụ nchebe na iwu gburugburu ebe obibi na edemede 191(2) TFEU na ụkpụrụ n'ozuzu nke iwu EU.[29][30][31]

France[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Na France, Charter for the Environment nwere usoro nke ụkpụrụ ịkpachapu anya (isiokwu 5):

Mgbe mmebi nke mmebi ọ bụla, ọ bụ ezie na a na-atụghị anya ya n'ọnọdụ dị ugbu a nke ihe ọmụma sayensị, nwere ike imerụ gburugburu ebe obibi nke ukwuu na nke na-enweghị ike imerụ ahụ, ndị ọchịchị ga-eji nkwanye ùgwù maka ụkpụrụ nke ịkpachara anya na mpaghara dị n'ime ikike ha, hụ na mmejuputa usoro nke usoro maka. nyocha ihe egwu na nnabata nke usoro nwa oge dabara na ihe egwu dị na ya iji gbochie mmebi nke mmebi ahụ.[32]

United States[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

N'abalị iri na asatọ n'ọnwa Julaị n'afọ 2005, Obodo San Francisco wepụtara ụkpụrụ nchebe maka ịzụta iwu, nke chọrọ ka obodo ahụ tụọ ụgwọ gburugburu ebe obibi na ahụike nke nde dọla narị isii na nzụta kwa afọ maka ihe niile site na nhicha ihe na kọmputa. Ndị otu Bay Area Working Group na Precautionary Principle nyere aka dee iwu ahụ.

Australia[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Ikpe ụlọ ikpe Australia kachasị mkpa ruo ugbu a, n'ihi nyocha zuru oke nke ụkpụrụ nchebe, bụ Telstra Corporation Limited v Hornsby Shire Council.[33]

E chịkọtara ụkpụrụ ahụ site na iji NSW Protection of the Environment Administration Act 1991, nke n'onwe ya na-enye ezigbo nkọwa nke ụkpụrụ ahụ:[34]

"Ọ bụrụ na enwere egwu nke nnukwu ma ọ bụ nke a na-apụghị ịgbanwe agbanwe, ekwesighi iji enweghị nkwenye sayensị zuru oke mee ihe dị ka ihe kpatara igbu oge iji gbochie mmebi gburugburu ebe obibi. N'iji ụkpụrụ ahụ mee ihe... mkpebi kwesịrị iduzi site na: (i) nnyocha nke ọma iji zere, ebe ọ bụla o kwere omume, nnukwu ma ọ bụ mmebi a na-apụghị ịgbanwe agbanwe na gburugburu ebe obibi; na (ii) nyocha nke ihe ize ndụ nke nhọrọ dị iche iche.

Ihe ndị kachasị mkpa nke mkpebi Justice Preston bụ nchọpụta ndị a:[35]

  • Ụkpụrụ na mkpa na-esote iji mee ihe mgbochi "na-akpata" mgbe ọnọdụ abụọ dị: egwu nke nnukwu mmebi ma ọ bụ nke a na-apụghị ịgbanwe agbanwe, na ejighị n'aka nke sayensị banyere oke mmebi nwere ike ime.
  • Ozugbo ha abụọ nwere afọ ojuju, "a pụrụ ime ihe nchebe kwesịrị ekwesị iji gbochie egwu a tụrụ anya ya nke mmebi gburugburu ebe obibi, mana ọ kwesịrị ịbụ nke kwesịrị ekwesị".
  • Egwu nke nnukwu ma ọ bụ mmebi a na-apụghị ịgbanwe agbanwe kwesịrị ịtụle ihe ise: oke egwu (ógbè, mpaghara wdg); uru a na-ahụ maka gburugburu ebe obibi a na-eyi egwu; ma mmetụta ndị nwere ike ijikwa; ọkwa nchegbu ọha na eze, na ma enwere ihe ezi uche ma ọ bụ ihe sayensị maka nchegbu ahụ.
  • Ntụle nke ọkwa nke ejighị n'aka sayensị kwesịrị ịgụnye ihe ndị nwere ike ịgụnye: ihe ga-abụ ihe akaebe zuru ezu; ọkwa na ụdị ejighị n"aka; na ikike iji belata ejighị n n'aka.
  • Ụkpụrụ ahụ na-agbanwe ibu nke ihe akaebe. Ọ bụrụ na ụkpụrụ ahụ na-emetụta, ibu arọ ahụ na-agbanwe: "onye na-eme mkpebi ga-ewere egwu nke nnukwu ma ọ bụ mmebi gburugburu ebe obibi a na-apụghị ịgbanwe agbanwe bụ... eziokwu [na] ibu arọ nke igosi egwu a... bụ ihe na-enweghị isi laghachi na onye na-akwado ya..."
  • Ụkpụrụ nchebe na-akpọ oku n'omume mgbochi: "ụkpụrụ ahụ na-enye ohere ịme usoro mgbochi n'enweghị ichere ruo mgbe eziokwu na ịdị njọ nke iyi egwu ahụ ga-ama nke ọma".
  • "E kwesịghị iji ụkpụrụ nchebe mee ihe iji gbalịa izere ihe ize ndụ niile".
  • Nzọụkwụ nchebe kwesịrị ekwesị ga-adabere na mmetụta jikọtara ọnụ nke "ogo nke ịdị njọ na enweghị ike ịgbanwe agbanwe nke egwu na ogo nke ejighị n'aka... ka egwu dị ịrịba ama na ejighị n"aka, ka ukwuu... nchebe achọrọ". "...a ga-ewere usoro... dịka egwu nwere ike".

Philippines[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

N'abalị iri na asaa n'ọnwa Mee n'afọ 2013, otu Greenpeace Southeast Asia na ndị ọrụ ugbo na ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị Masipag (Magsasaka at Siyentipiko sa Pagpapa Ondang ng Agrikultura) rịọrọ ụlọ ikpe mkpegharị ka ha kwụsị ịkụ osisi Bt n'ọhịa nnwale, na-ekwu na mmetụta nke ọrụ dị otú ahụ na gburugburu ebe obibi, ihe ọkụkụ na ahụike mmadụ ka amaghị. Ụlọikpe mkpegharị ikpe kwadoro arịrịọ ahụ, na-ezo aka n'ụkpụrụ nchebe nke na-ekwu "mgbe ọrụ mmadụ nwere ike iduga n'ihe egwu nke nnukwu mmebi na-enweghị ngwọta na gburugburu ebe obibi nke sayensị kwere omume ma ọ bụ ejighị n'aka, a ga-eme ihe iji zere ma ọ bụ belata egwu ahụ".[36] Ndị zaghachiri tinyere akwụkwọ maka ịtụgharị uche na June 2013 na 20 Septemba 2013 ụlọ ikpe mkpegharị ikpe họọrọ ịkwado mkpebi ha na Mee na-ekwu na nnwale bt talong na-emebi ikike iwu ndị mmadụ nwere "ihe dị mma na nke dị mma".[37][38] Ụlọikpe Kasị Elu na 8 Disemba 2015 kwụsịrị nnwale ubi maka Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) talong (eggplant), na-akwado mkpebi nke Ụlọikpe Mkpegharị Ikpe nke kwụsịrị nnwere onwe ubi maka eggplant gbanwere mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa. Ụlọ ikpe ahụ bụ nke mbụ n'ụwa iji nabata ụkpụrụ nchebe gbasara ngwaahịa GMO na mkpebi ya. E mechara gbanwee mkpebi Ụlọikpe Kasị Elu mgbe ndị nchọpụta na Mahadum nke Philippines Los Baños rịọrọ arịrịọ.[39]

Ụlọ ọrụ[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Body Shop International, ụlọ ọrụ ihe ntecha nke dị na UK, gụnyere ụkpụrụ ịkpachapu anya na atụmatụ kemịkal ha nke afọ 2006.[40]

Gburugburu ebe obibi na ahụike[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Mpaghara ndị na-emetụta ụkpụrụ ịkpachapu anya bụ ohere nke:

  • Okpomọkụ ụwa ma ọ bụ mgbanwe ihu igwe mberede n'ozuzu
  • Mgbukpọ nke ụdị
  • Ntinye ngwaahịa ọhụrụ n'ime gburugburu ebe obibi, nke nwere mmetụta nwere ike inwe na ụdị dị iche iche (dịka, ihe ndị a gbanwere mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa)
  • Ihe egwu maka ahụike ọha na eze, n'ihi ọrịa na usoro ọhụrụ (dịka, HIV na-ebute site na mmịnye ọbara)
  • Mmetụta ogologo oge nke teknụzụ ọhụrụ (dịka nchegbu ahụike gbasara radiation sitere na ekwentị mkpanaaka na ngwaọrụ nkwukọrịta eletrọniki ndị ọzọ)
  • Mmetọ na-adịgide adịgide ma ọ bụ nke siri ike (dịka, asbestos, endocrine disruptors)
  • Nchebe nri (dịka, ọrịa CreutzfeldtʹJakob)
  • Nsogbu ọhụrụ ndị ọzọ na-echebe ihe ndị dị ndụ (dịka, ndụ aka, mkpụrụ ndụ ọhụrụ)

A na-ejikarị ụkpụrụ ịkpachapu anya eme ihe na mpaghara ihe ndị dị ndụ n'ihi na mgbanwe enweghị ike ịnwe n'ụzọ dị mfe ma nwee ike ịbụ ụwa niile. Ụkpụrụ ahụ enweghị ihe ọ bụla metụtara mpaghara ndị dị n'ime ya dịka ụgbọelu, ebe mmadụ ole na ole na-etinye onwe ha n'ihe ize ndụ nyere nkwenye mara (dịka, onye na-anya ụgbọelu nnwale). N'ihe banyere ihe ọhụrụ teknụzụ, igbochi mmetụta na-esikarị ike ma ọ bụrụ na teknụzụ ahụ nwere ike imepụtaghachi onwe ya. Bill Joy kwusiri ike ihe ize ndụ nke imepụtaghachi teknụzụ mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa, nanotechnology, na teknụzụ robotic na edemede ya na Wired, "Ihe mere ọdịnihu anaghị achọ anyị", ọ bụ ezie na ọ kpọtụghị ụkpụrụ nchebe kpọmkwem. Enwere ike ịhụ itinye ụkpụrụ ahụ n'ọrụ na iwu ọha na eze nke na-achọ ka ụlọ ọrụ na-emepụta ọgwụ mee nnwale ahụike iji gosi na ọgwụ ọhụrụ dị mma.

Onye ọkà ihe ọmụma nke Oxford bụ Nick Bostrom na-atụle echiche nke ọgụgụ isi dị ike n'ọdịnihu, na ihe ize ndụ ma ọ bụrụ na ọ gbalịa inweta ikike atọm nke ihe.[41]

Mmetụta nke ụkpụrụ ahụ na-agbanwe ọnọdụ nke ihe ọhụrụ na nyocha ihe ize ndụ: ọ bụghị ihe ize ndụ a ga-ezere ma ọ bụ gbanwee, kama ọ bụ ihe ize ndụ nwere ike igbochi. Ya mere, n'ihe banyere nhazi nke nyocha sayensị, enwere onye nke atọ karịa onye sayensị na onye na-achịkwa: onye na-azụ ahịa.

N'ime nnyocha gbasara itinye ụkpụrụ nchebe na nanotechnology, Chris Phoenix na Mike Treder na-ekwu na e nwere ụdị abụọ nke ụkpụrụ ahụ, nke ha na-akpọ "ụdị siri ike" na "ụdị na-arụ ọrụ".[42] Nke mbụ "na-achọ enweghị ihe ọ bụla mgbe omume nwere ike ibute ihe ize ndụ", ebe nke ikpeazụ pụtara "ịhọrọ ụzọ ndị na-adịchaghị ize ndụ mgbe ha dị, na [...] na-eburu ibu ọrụ maka ihe ize ndụ ndị nwere ike". Thomas Alured Faunce arụrịta ụka maka itinye ụkpụrụ nchebe n'ọrụ nke ọma site na ndị na-achịkwa teknụzụ kemịkal na ahụike karịsịa n'ihe gbasara Ti02 na ZnO nanoparticles na sunscreens, biocidal nanosilver na ụzọ mmiri na nke ngwaahịa ya, njikwa ma ọ bụ imegharị ihe na-ekpughe ụmụ mmadụ n'ihe ize ndụ nke iku ume carbon nanotubes nwere ọtụtụ mgbidi.[43]

Nchịkwa akụ[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Nkwekọrịta agba ọkụ okporo ụzọ, na-egosi echiche nke iwu nchịkwa owuwe ihe ubi (HCR), na-akọwa mgbe atụmatụ iwughachi bụ iwu n'ihe gbasara nchebe na njedebe ebe ntụle maka spawning biomass na ọnwụ azụ

A na-achịkwa ọtụtụ ihe ndị sitere n'okike dị ka azụ ugbu a site na usoro ịkpachapu anya, site na iwu nchịkwa owuwe ihe ubi (HCRs) dabere na ụkpụrụ nchebe. Ọnụ ọgụgụ ahụ na-egosi otu esi etinye ụkpụrụ ahụ n'ọrụ na njikwa azụ azụ cod nke International Council for the Exploration of the Sea chepụtara.

N'ịkewapụta ụdị ndị nọ n'ihe ize ndụ, ụkpụrụ nchebe pụtara na ọ bụrụ na enwere obi abụọ banyere ọnọdụ nchekwa nke anụmanụ ma ọ bụ osisi, a ga-ahọrọ nke ga-eme ka a hụ usoro nchebe kachasị ike. Ya mere, ụdị dị ka nduru ọlaọcha nke nwere ike ịdị n'ọnụ ọgụgụ dị ukwuu ma bụrụ nke a na-edeghị aha ya ma ọ bụ nke nwere ike ịbụ nke a na'adịghịzi adị, anaghị ahapụ ya dị ka "ihe ọmụma na-adịghị mma" ma ọ bụ "nke na-adịghị adị" (nke ha abụọ anaghị achọ ọ bụla na-echebe), kama dị ka "nke dị oke egwu" (ọnọdụ nchekwa nke na-enye mkpa maka nchebe kachasị ike), ebe ọ na-adịwanye ụkọ, ma eleghị anya, a na-achọghị ka ọ dị mkpa maka nchedozi ya iji mee ka ọ doo anya, n'ihe ọmụma na nchedozi [n'ihe ize ndụ] mee ka ọ dị ngwa ngwa ngwa iji mee nchedo).

Ọ bụrụ na, dịka ọmụmaatụ, nnukwu mmiri dị n'okpuru ala nke ndị mmadụ na-eji eme mmiri ọṅụṅụ nwere nje bacteria (dịka. Escherichia coli O157:H7, Campylobacter ma ọ bụ Leptospira) na isi iyi nke mmetọ a na-enyo enyo na ọ bụ ehi ara ehi mana sayensị ahụ enweghị ike inye akaebe zuru oke, a ga-ewepụ ehi ahụ na gburugburu ebe obibi ruo mgbe ụlọ ọrụ mmiri ara ehi gosipụtara ha, ọ bụghị isi iyi ma ọ bụ ruo mgbe ụlọ ahịa ahụ ga-ahụ na mmetọ dị otú ahụ agaghị abịaghachi.

Ụkpụrụ ịkpachapu anya nke anụmanụ[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Arịrịọ maka ụkpụrụ ịkpachapu anya na-egosipụtakarị arụmụka gbasara mmetụta anụmanụ, ya bụ, ajụjụ nke ma ụmụ anụmanụ nwere ike inwe "ahụmahụ na-adọrọ mmasị ma ọ bụ nke na-adịghị mma", dị ka ihe mgbu, obi ụtọ, ma ọ bụ ọṅụ n'ihe gbasara ajụjụ nke ma anyị kwesịrị ichebe anụmanụ nwere mmetụta n'ụzọ iwu.[44] Otu ụdị ụkpụrụ nchebe dabara adaba maka nsogbu nke anụmanụ nwere mmetụta ka onye ọkà ihe ọmụma LSE bụ Jonathan Birch chepụtara: "Echiche ahụ bụ na mgbe ihe akaebe nke mmetụta na-enweghị nkwubi okwu, anyị kwesịrị 'inye anụmanụ uru nke obi abụọ' ma ọ bụ 'ghọrọ n'akụkụ nke ịkpachara anya' n'ịmepụta iwu nchebe anụmanụ. "[44] Ebe ọ bụ na anyị enweghị ike iru nkwenye zuru oke banyere eziokwu ahụ bụ na ụfọdụ anụmanụ nwere ọgụgụ isi, a na-akpọtụrụ ụkpụrụ nchebe iji nye anụmanụ nwere ike inwe ọgụgụ isi "nchebe iwu".[44] Nkwupụta Birch banyere ụkpụrụ nchebe nke anụmanụ dị ka ndị a:

N'ebe enwere egwu dị egwu, nsonaazụ ọdịmma anụmanụ na-adịghị mma, enweghị nkwenye sayensị zuru oke maka echiche nke anụmanụ ndị a na-ekwu maka ya, a gaghị eji ya mee ihe dị ka ihe kpatara yigharịrị usoro dị ọnụ ahịa iji gbochie nsonaazụ ndị ahụ.[44]

Ụdị a nke ụkpụrụ ịkpachapu anya nwere iwu epistemic na mkpebi. Nke mbụ na-emetụta "ihe akaebe" nke kwesịrị ịchọ maka mmetụta anụmanụ. N'ikwu ya n'ụzọ ọzọ, ihe akaebe ole nke ikike dị mkpa tupu mmadụ ekpebie itinye usoro nchebe? Dị ka Birch si kwuo, ọ bụ naanị ihe akaebe ụfọdụ ga-ezuru, nke pụtara na a ga-edozi ihe akaebe ahụ na ọkwa dị ala. Birch na-atụ aro ịtụle ihe akaebe na ụmụ anụmanụ ụfọdụ nwere mmetụta zuru ezu mgbe ọ bụla "ihe akaebe dị ịrịba ama ... nke ọnụnọ nke ọ dịkarịa ala otu ihe ngosi a pụrụ ịtụkwasị obi nke mmetụta na ọ dịkarị otu ụdị nke usoro ahụ" nwetara.[44] Maka ihe ndị bara uru, Birch na-ekwu, ihe akaebe nke sentience kwesịrị imetụta usoro ahụ, nke mere na ọ bụrụ na otu ụdị na-ezute ọnọdụ nke sentience, mgbe ahụ, a ga-ewere ụdị niile nke otu usoro ahụ dị ka ndị nwere mmetụta ma bụrụ ndị iwu kwadoro. Nke a bụ n'ihi eziokwu ahụ bụ na, n'otu aka, "ịchọpụta mmetụta iche iche n'usoro dị iche iche" ga-ekwe omume, ebe n'aka nke ọzọ, ebe ọ bụ na iwu ụfọdụ gụnyere ọtụtụ puku ụdị, ọ gaghị ekwe omume ịmụ mmetụta ha iche.[44]

Ihe ọzọ, ihe akaebe kwesịrị ịdị ala nke na ọ bụ naanị otu ihe na-egosi mmetụta na ụdị nke otu usoro ga-ezuru iji tinye ụkpụrụ nchebe n'ọrụ. Ihe ngosi dị otú ahụ kwesịrị ịbụ "ihe a na-ahụ anya nke enwere ike ime nnwale iji chọpụta, ọ ga-abụkwa ihe a pụrụ ịtụkwasị obi na a na-akọwa ọnụnọ nke ihe ngosi a site na mmetụta".[45] Ndepụta nke njirimara ndị dị otú ahụ adịlarị maka ịchọpụta ihe mgbu anụmanụ. Ebumnuche bụ ịmepụta ndepụta yiri nke ahụ maka njirimara ndị ọzọ nke mmetụta, dị ka obi ụtọ, egwu, ma ọ bụ ọṅụ. A ga-egosipụta ọnụnọ nke otu n'ime njirimara ndị a site na nnwale nke ga-emezu "ụkpụrụ sayensị nkịtị".[44]

Banyere akụkụ nke abụọ nke ụkpụrụ nchebe nke anụmanụ, iwu mkpebi ahụ metụtara ihe achọrọ na anyị ga-eme ihe ozugbo enwere ihe akaebe zuru ezu nke nsonaazụ ọjọọ. Dị ka Birch si kwuo, "anyị kwesịrị ịchọ itinye n'ime iwu nchebe anụmanụ niile nke ihe akaebe nke ikike zuru ezu, dịka ụkpụrụ nke afọ ojuju edepụtara [n'elu]".[45] N'ikwu ya n'ụzọ ọzọ, iwu mkpebi ahụ na-ekwu na ozugbo e mezuru obere ihe akaebe a kpọtụrụ aha n'elu, mgbe ahụ anyị kwesịrị ime ihe n'ụzọ nchebe.[44] Atụmatụ Birch "na-akpachara anya na-ahapụ ajụjụ banyere otu, na ruo n'ókè, ọgwụgwọ nke ụmụ anụmanụ ndị a kwesịrị ịchịkwa", si otú a na-ahapụrụ ọdịnaya nke iwu ahụ, ebe nke a ga-adabere n'ụzọ dị ukwuu na anụmanụ ahụ a na-ekwu maka ya.[44]

Nkatọ[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Ndị na-akatọ ụkpụrụ ahụ na-eji arụmụka yiri nke ahụ megide usoro ndị ọzọ nke teknụzụ.

Enweghị nkwekọ n'ime: itinye ihe ize ndụ PP siri ike na-akpata mmerụ ahụ[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Nkwupụta siri ike nke ụkpụrụ nchebe, n'echebaraghị ihe ndị bụ isi ya (ya bụ, na a ga-etinye ya naanị ebe ihe ize ndụ nwere ike ịbụ ọdachi ma ọ bụghị mfe ịgụta), mgbe a na-etinye ya na ụkpụrụ ahụ n'onwe ya dị ka mkpebi iwu, na-akụ ebumnuche nke ibelata ihe ize ndụ. Ihe kpatara ya bụ na igbochi ihe ọhụrụ na-egosi na ọ bụ naanị teknụzụ dị ugbu a nwere ike iji mee ihe, na teknụzụ ugbu a nwere onwe ya nwere ike imebi ma ọ bụ hapụ mkpa a na-enweghị ike imerụzụ; enwere ihe ize ndụ nke imebi ihe ọ bụ na-egbochi ihe ọhụrụ.[24][46][47] Dị ka Michael Crichton dere n'akwụkwọ akụkọ ya State of Fear: "'Ụkpụrụ nchebe', nke a na-etinye n'ụzọ ziri ezi, na-amachibido ụkpụrụ nchebe".

Dịka ọmụmaatụ, ịmachibido ụlọ ọrụ ike nuklia iwu dabere na nchegbu banyere obere ihe ize ndụ dị elu pụtara ịnọgide na-adabere na ụlọ ọrụ ike na-ere mmanụ ala, nke na-aga n'ihu na-ewepụta gas na-ekpo ọkụ na ọtụtụ puku ọnwụ ụfọdụ site na mmetọ ikuku.[24] 

N'afọ 2021 na nzaghachi maka akụkọ mbụ banyere ọbara na-adịghị ahụkebe a hụrụ na ndị ọrịa ịrị abụọ na ise n'ime nde mmadụ ịrị abụọ ndị a gbara ọgwụ mgbochi COVID-19[48] Astra-Zeneca gbara ọgwụ mgbochi ọrịa COVID-19 ọtụtụ mba ndị so na European Union kwụsịtụrụ iji ọgwụ mgbochi ahụ, na-ekwu maka "ụkpụrụ nchebe". Mba EU ndị ọzọ katọrọ nke a bụ ndị jụrụ ịkwụsị usoro ịgba ọgwụ mgbochi ahụ, na-ekwupụta na mkpebi "nchebe" na-elekwasị anya n'ihe ize ndụ na-ezighi ezi, dịka igbu oge na usoro ịgba ọgwụgwọ na-ebute ọnụọgụ ọnwụ ụfọdụ karịa nsogbu ọ bụla a na-ejighị n'aka.[49]

N'ihe atụ ọzọ, ndokwa nke Hazardous Air Pollutant na mmezigharị 1990 na US Clean Air Act bụ ihe atụ nke Precautionary Principle ebe ibu ọrụ dị ugbu a na-egosi na ogige edepụtara adịghị emerụ ahụ. N'okpuru iwu a, ọ dịghị ihe dị iche n'etiti ihe ndị na-emetọ ikuku nke na-enye ihe ize ndụ dị elu ma ọ bụ dị ala, yabụ ndị ọrụ na-ahọrọkarị ndị a na-enyochaghị enyocha ndị na-adịghị na ndepụta dị ugbu a.[50]

Ihe ndabere nke ụkpụrụ ịkpachara anya bụ iche n'echiche ihe kachasị njọ na-enweghị ihe akaebe na-akwado ... ndị nwere echiche kachasị njọ na-aghọ ndị kacha emetụta.


— Adam Curtis, n'ihe nkiri a kpọrọ, The Power of Nightmares

Igbochi ihe ọhụrụ na ọganihu n'ozuzu[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

N'ihi na enwere ike iji usoro siri ike nke ụkpụrụ nchebe mee ihe iji gbochie ihe ọhụrụ, enwere ike machibido teknụzụ nke na-eweta uru site na ụkpụrụ nchebe n'ihi ikike ya maka mmetụta ọjọọ, na-ahapụ uru dị mma na-enweghị isi[51] 

A na-ajụ ụkpụrụ nchebe ahụ n'ụzọ ziri ezi na ndabere na itinye ya n'ọrụ nwere ike igbochi ọganihu na mba ndị na-emepe emepe.[52][53]

Ụkpụrụ kpachara anya na-enye ahụike anyị nnukwu ihe egwu nke na-agafe karịa ọgbọ nke neuroses na-enweghị isi. Njikọ kachasị na ahụike na ahụike anyị bụ ụkpụrụ ibi ndụ anyị, dịka a tụrụ n'usoro akụ na ụba na nke anụ ahụ. Ndị mmadụ na obodo ndị nwere nkà na ụzụ na-arịa ọrịa ole na ole ma na-adị ogologo ndụ karịa ndị nọ ná mba ndị mepere emepe. Ihe kacha egbu egbu n'ụwa abụghị soya gbanwetụrụ site na mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa, ihe mkpofu pesticide ma ọ bụ ọbụna ụtaba. Ọ bụ ihe enyere koodu Z59.5 na International Classification of Disease Handbook ma na-akpata ọnwụ karịa n'ụwa niile karịa otu ihe ọ bụla ọzọ. Akọwara ya dị ka 'oke ịda ogbenye'. — Social Issues Research Centre

Nkọwa na ezi uche[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Ụkpụrụ nchebe na-akpọ maka ime ihe n'ihu ejighị n'aka sayensị, mana ụfọdụ usoro anaghị akọwapụta obere ọnụ ụzọ nke ihe ize ndụ nke na-arụ ọrụ dị ka ọnọdụ "na-akpali", nke mere na ihe ọ bụla na-egosi na ngwaahịa ma ọ bụ ọrụ a tụrụ aro nwere ike imerụ ahụike ma ọ bụ gburugburu ebe obibi zuru ezu iji kpọọ ụkpụrụ ahụ.[54] Na Sancho vs. DOE, Helen Gillmor, Onye Nnukwu Onyeikpe Mpaghara, dere na mwepụ nke ikpe Wagner nke gụnyere nchegbu a ma ama na LHC nwere ike ịkpata "mbibi nke ụwa" site na oghere ojii:[55]

N'ezie, mmerụ ahụ chọrọ ụfọdụ "ihe iyi egwu nke mmerụ ahụ." Cent. Delta Water Agency v. United States, 306 F.3d 938, 950 (9th Cir. 2002). Ọtụtụ mgbe, Wagner boro ebubo na nnwale na Large Hadron Collider ("Collider") nwere "enwere mmetụta ọjọọ." Ụjọ ịtụ egwu maka mmerụ ahụ n'ọdịnihu adịghị abụ mmerụ ahụ n'ezie zuru oke iji kwụ ọtọ. Mayfield, 599 F.3d na 970.[56]

Nsogbu ịkpachapu anya[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Mmegide a na-emekarị na ụkpụrụ ịkpachapu anya na-ejikọta abụọ n'ime mmegide ndị dị n'elu n'ụdị nsogbu.[57][58] Nke a na-ekwusi ike na, n'ime nkọwa abụọ dịnụ nke ụkpụrụ ahụ, ọ dịghị nke ezi uche dị na ya: usoro ndị na-adịghị ike (nke na-ekwu na ịkpachara anya n'ihu mmerụ ahụ a na-ejighị n'aka bụ ihe kwere omume) bụ ihe na-enweghị isi, ebe usoro siri ike (nke nwere na ịkpachapụ anya n'ihi mmerụ ahụ ejighị n'anya achọrọ) enweghị nkwekọ.[57][58][59] Na mpi mbụ nke nsogbu ahụ, Cass Sunstein na-ekwu, sị:

Ụdị na-adịghị ike nke Ụkpụrụ Akpachara anya na-ekwupụta eziokwu - enweghị mgbagha n'ụkpụrụ na ọ dị mkpa na omume naanị iji luso ọgba aghara ọha na eze ọgụ ma ọ bụ nkwuputa ọdịmma onwe onye nke ndị otu onwe ha na-achọ ihe akaebe na-enweghị mgbagha nke mmerụ ahụ, nke ọha mmadụ enweghị ezi uche chọrọ.[60]

Ọ bụrụ na ihe niile ụkpụrụ ahụ (na-adịghị ike) na-ekwu bụ na ọ ga-ekwe omume ime ihe n'ụzọ nchebe ebe enwere ihe ize ndụ nke mmerụ ahụ, mgbe ahụ ọ na-eme ka eziokwu na-enweghị isi ma si otú a ghara ịba uru.

Ọ bụrụ na anyị edepụta ụkpụrụ ahụ n'echiche siri ike, ọ dị ka ọ na-egbochi usoro niile, gụnyere usoro nchebe ọ na-ezube ịkwado. Nke a bụ n'ihi na, ọ bụrụ na anyị kwuo na a chọrọ ịkpachara anya n'ihu mmerụ ahụ a na-ejighị n'aka, na usoro ịkpachara onwe ya anya na-ebukwa ihe ize ndụ nke mmerụ ahụ, ụkpụrụ ịkpachara ike nwere ike ịchọ ma machibido ime ihe n'otu oge ahụ. Ihe ize ndụ nke iwu na-akpata mmerụ ahụ ọdachi ga-ekwe omume mgbe niile. Dịka ọmụmaatụ: ịmachibido ihe ọkụkụ gbanwere mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa ihe ize ndụ na-ebelata mmepụta nri nke ukwuu; itinye oge na ihe ize ndụ ike nuklia na ịdabere na coal nke nwere ike ibute mmetọ ikuku; itinye usoro siri ike iji belata ihe ize ndụ okpomọkụ ụwa ịda ogbenye na nsogbu ahụike maka ụfọdụ ndị mmadụ.[57][58] Nkọwa siri ike nke ụkpụrụ nchebe, na "ọ machibidoro usoro ọ chọrọ", si otú a ghara ịdị n'otu. Dị ka Sunstein si kwuo, ọ bụghị ihe nchebe, ọ bụ "na-akpaghasị".

Hụkwa[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

 

Edensibia[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Rupert Read and Tim O'Riordan (2017). "The Precautionary Principle Under Fire". Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development 59 (September–October 2017): 4–15. DOI:10.1080/00139157.2017.1350005. 
  2. ↑ The precautionary principle: Definitions, applications and governance – Think Tank (en). www.europarl.europa.eu. Retrieved on 2020-03-19.
  3. ↑ Elishakoff, I. Safety factors and reliability: friends or foes?, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2004
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 de Bélidor, Bernard Forest, La science des ingénieurs, dans la conduite des travaux de fortification et d'architecture civile, Paris: Chez Claude Jombert 1729
  5. ↑ Elishakoff, I., Interrelation between safety factors and reliability, NASA/CR-2001-211309, 2001
  6. ↑ Doorn, N. and Hansson, S.O., Should probabilistic design replace safety factors?, Philosophy & Technology, 24(2), pp.151-16, 2011
  7. ↑ The Precautionary Principle. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 8. World Commission on the Ethics of Scientific Knowledge and Technology (COMEST). Retrieved on 2 January 2020.
  8. ↑ Art. 191 (2) TFEU, Explanations Relating to the Charter of Fundamental Rights (2007/C 303/02, OJ EU C303/35 14.12.2007 explanation on article 52 (5) of the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights, T-13/99 Pfizer vs Council p.114-125
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 Brand (2010). Whole Earth Discipline. Penguin Books. ISBN 9780143118282. 
  10. ↑ Jonas, H. (1984). The imperative of responsibility: In search of an ethics for the technological age. University of Chicago press.
  11. ↑ Christiansen (1994). "Chapter 2: The Precautionary Principle in Germany: Enabling Government", in O'Riordan: Interpreting the Precautionary Principle. Earthscan Publications Ltd. ISBN 1134165781. 
  12. ↑ Epstein (1980). "Decision-making and the temporal resolution of uncertainty". International Economic Review 21 (2): 269–283. DOI:10.2307/2526180. 
  13. ↑ Arrow (1974). "Environmental preservation, uncertainty and irreversibility". Quarterly Journal of Economics 88 (2): 312–9. DOI:10.2307/1883074. 
  14. ↑ Gollier (2000). "Scientific Progress and Irreversibility: An Economic Interpretation of the 'Precautionary Principle'". Journal of Public Economics 75 (2): 229–253. DOI:10.1016/S0047-2727(99)00052-3. 
  15. ↑ Andrew Jordan & Timothy O'Riordan. Chapter 3, The precautionary principle: a legal and policy history, in The precautionary principle: protecting public health, the environment and the future of our children. Edited by: Marco Martuzzi and Joel A. Tickner. World Health Organization 2004
  16. ↑ UNEP. Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. Archived from the original on 4 September 2009. Retrieved on 29 October 2014.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Commission of the European Communities. 2 February 2000 Communication From The Commission on the Precautionary Principle
  18. ↑ Official text of the Cartagena Protocol. United Nations (29 January 2000). Retrieved on 12 March 2016.
  19. ↑ Foster (12 May 2000). "Science and the Precautionary Principle". Science 288 (5468): 979–981. DOI:10.1126/science.288.5468.979. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 10841718. 
  20. ↑ Stewart, R.B. (2002). "Environmental Regulatory Decision Making Under Uncertainty". Research in Law and Economics 20. 
  21. ↑ Sachs (2011). "Rescuing the Strong Precautionary Principle from its Critics". University of Illinois Law Review 2011 (4): 1285–1338. Retrieved on 13 October 2011. 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Sunstein (2002). "Does the Precautionary Principle point us in any helpful direction ? The Paralyzing Principle". Regulation 25 (9): 32–37. 
  23. ↑ The No Regrets Principle by Shawn Brodof. Retrieved on 2019-08-06. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Mandel (2006). "Cost Benefit Analysis Versus the Precautionary Principle: Beyond Cass Sunstein's Laws of Fear". University of Illinois Law Review 2006 (5): 1037–1079. Retrieved on 13 October 2011. 
  25. ↑ "Precautionary Principle: Origins, definitions, and interpretations." Treasury Publication, Government of New Zealand. 2006. http://www.treasury.govt.nz/publications/research-policy/ppp/2006/06-06/05.htm
  26. ↑ Recuerda, M. A. (2008). "Dangerous interpretations of the precautionary principle and the foundational values of the European Union Food Law: Risk versus Risk". Journal of Food Law & Policy 4 (1). 
  27. ↑ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union article 191, paragraph 2
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Recuerda, Miguel A. (2006). "Risk and Reason in the European Union Law". European Food and Feed Law Review 5. 
  29. ↑ EUR-Lex - 62000TJ0074 - EN - EUR-Lex. eur-lex.europa.eu.
  30. ↑ EUR-Lex - 12008E191 - EN - EUR-Lex. eur-lex.europa.eu.
  31. ↑ Craig (2015). EU law: text, cases, and materials, sixth, Oxford University Press, 112–113. ISBN 978-0-19-871492-7. 
  32. ↑ Charter for the Environment, Constitutional Council (page visited on 28 August 2016).
  33. ↑ [2006] NSWLEC 133 (24 March 2006) .
  34. ↑ PROTECTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT ADMINISTRATION ACT 1991 - SECT 6 Objectives of the Authority. austlii.edu.au. Retrieved on 2017-04-03.
  35. ↑ Hon. Justice Brian J Preston, (2006), 'Telstra Corporation Limited v Hornsby Shire Council [2006] NSWLEC 133', Land and Environment Court of New South Wales. Paragraphs 125-183. https://www.caselaw.nsw.gov.au/decision/549f8a6b3004262463ad5606
  36. ↑ Greenpeace Southeast Asia (Philippines), et. al. vs. Environmental Management Bureau of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, et. al.. Republic of the Philippines Court of Appeals (17 May 2013). Archived from the original on 18 January 2016. Retrieved on 12 March 2016.
  37. ↑ Greenpeace Southeast Asia (Philippines), et. al. vs. Environment Management Bureau of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, et. al.. Republic of the Philippines Court of Appeals (17 May 2013). Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved on 12 March 2016.
  38. ↑ Greenpeace Southeast Asia (Philippines), et. al. vs. Environment Management Bureau of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, et. al.. Republic of the Philippines Court of Appeals (20 September 2013). Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved on 12 March 2016.
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  40. ↑ Chemicals Strategy. The Body Shop (August 2006). Retrieved on 12 March 2016.
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  42. ↑ Nanotechnology: Precautionary Principle Analyzed. Center for Responsible Nanotechnology (January 2004). Retrieved on 12 March 2016.
  43. ↑ (2008) "Sunscreen Safety: The Precautionary Principle, The Australian Therapeutic Goods Administration and Nanoparticles in Sunscreens". Nanoethics 2 (3): 231–240. DOI:10.1007/s11569-008-0041-z. 
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 44.3 44.4 44.5 44.6 44.7 44.8 Birch (2017). "Animal sentience and the precautionary principle". Animal Sentience 16 (1). 
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Birch. "Animal sentience and the precautionary principle". Animal Sentience: 1–16. 
  46. ↑ Brown, Tracey (9 July 2013)The precautionary principle is a blunt instrument The Guardian, Retrieved 9 August 2013
  47. ↑ Sherry Seethaler. Lies, Damned Lies, and Science: How to Sort through the Noise around Global Warming, the Latest Health Claims, and Other Scientific Controversies FT Press, 2009
  48. ↑ Miller (20 March 2021). Canada monitoring guidance on AstraZeneca-Oxford vaccine amid potential link to blood clots. CBC.
  49. ↑ Waterfield. "The EU's risk aversion cost thousands of lives", The Times. Retrieved on 2021-03-25. (in en)
  50. ↑ (2004) "Implications of the Precautionary Principle: is it a threat to science?". International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health 17 (1): 153–61. PMID 15212219. 
  51. ↑ (2008) "GM directive deficiencies in the European Union". EMBO Reports 9 (6): 500–504. DOI:10.1038/embor.2008.94. PMID 18516083. 
  52. ↑ Jimenez-Arias (2008). Biothics and the Environment. Libros en Red. ISBN 9781597543804. 
  53. ↑ Beware the Precautionary Principle. www.sirc.org. Retrieved on 2021-03-16.
  54. ↑ van den Belt H (July 2003). "Debating the Precautionary Principle: "Guilty until Proven Innocent" or "Innocent until Proven Guilty"?". Plant Physiol. 132 (3): 1122–6. DOI:10.1104/pp.103.023531. PMID 12857792. 
  55. ↑ Highfield (5 September 2008). Scientists get death threats over Large Hadron Collider. Telegraph.co.uk. Archived from the original on 1 August 2009. Retrieved on 29 October 2014.
  56. ↑ LHC lawsuit dismissed by US court. symmetry magazine. Archived from the original on 30 August 2010. Retrieved on 15 May 2023.
  57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 57.2 Steel (2013). "The Precautionary Principle and the Dilemma Objection". Ethics, Policy and Environment: A Journal of Philosophy and Geography 16 (3): 321–340. DOI:10.1080/21550085.2013.844570. 
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 58.2 Sunstein (2005). "The Precautionary Principle as a Basis for Decision Making". The Economists' Voice 2 (2). DOI:10.2202/1553-3832.1079. 
  59. ↑ Kpọpụta njehie: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Sunstein
  60. ↑ Sunstein, Cass (2005). Laws of fear. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 

Ịgụ ihe ọzọ[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

  • odKai Purnhagen, "Iwu Omume na Akụ na ụba nke Ụkpụrụ Nchebe na EU na Mmetụta ya na Nchịkwa Ahịa N'ime", Wageningen Akwụkwọ Ọrụ na Iwu na Gọọmenti 2013 Xi04, [1]
  • Arrow (1996). "Is There a Role for Cost-Benefit Analysis in Environmental, Health, and Safety Regulation?". Science 272 (5259): 221–2. DOI:10.1126/science.272.5259.221. PMID 8602504. 
  • Andorno, Roberto (2004). "The Precautionary Principle: A New Legal Standard for a Technological Age". Journal of International Biotechnology Law 1: 11–19. DOI:10.1515/jibl.2004.1.1.11. 
  • Nkwurịta okwu sitere na European Commission na ụkpụrụ nchebe Brusells (2000)
  • European Union (2002), European Union jikọtara nsụgharị nke nkwekọrịta na European Union na nkwekọrịta nke na-eguzobe obodo Europe, Official Journal of the European Union, C325, 24 December 2002, Isiokwu XIX, isiokwu 174, paragraf 2 na 3.
  • Greenpeace, "azụmahịa dị nchebe na narị afọ nke iri abụọ na otu, atụmatụ zuru oke na aro Greenpeace maka Nzukọ nke anọ nke Òtù Azụmaahịa Ụwa" peeji nke iri asatọ na itoolu [2]
  • Harremoës (October 2002). "The Precautionary Principle in the 20th Century: Late Lessons from Early Warnings — Earthscan, 2002. Review". Nature 419 (6906). DOI:10.1038/419433a. 
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  • Raffensperger, C., na Tickner, J. (ed.) (1999) Nchebe Ahụike Ọha na Gburugburu Ebe Obibi: Ịmejuputa Ụkpụrụ Nchebe. Island Press, Washington, DC.
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  • Sandin, P. "Kiri Nchebe karịa O wutere: itinye usoro nkà ihe ọmụma na arụmụka banyere ihe ize ndụ na ụkpụrụ nchebe," (2004).
  • Stewart, R.B. "Nkwupụta Nchịkwa Gburugburu Ebe Obibi na-eme n'okpuru Uncertainty". N'akwụkwọ An Introduction to the Law and Economics of Environmental Policy: Issues in Institutional Design, Mpịakọta 20: 71ʹ126 (2002).
  • Sunstein, Cass R. (2005), Iwu nke Egwu: Beyond the Precautionary Principle. New York: Cambridge University Press

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