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Environmental impact of agriculture

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Environmental impact of agriculture
mmetụta gburugburu ebe obibi
obere ụdị nkemmetụta gburugburu ebe obibi Dezie
ihu nkeoru ugbo, mgbanwe ihu igwe Dezie

Mmetụta gburugburu ebe obibi nke ọrụ ugbo bụ mmetụta nke ọrụ ugbo dị iche iche nwere na gburugburu ebe obibi gbara ha gburugburu, na otu esi achọpụta mmetụta ndị ahụ na omume ndị ahụ.[1] Mmetụta gburugburu ebe obibi nke ọrụ ugbo dịgasị iche iche dabere na omume ndị ọrụ ugbo na site na ọnụ ọgụgụ nke omume. Obodo ndị ọrụ ugbo na-anwa ibelata mmetụta gburugburu ebe obibi site n'ịgbanwe omume ha ga-anakwere omume ugbo na-adịgide adịgide. Mmetụta na-adịghị mma nke ọrụ ugbo bụ okwu ochie nke ka bụ nchegbu ọbụna ka ndị ọkachamara na-emepụta ụzọ ọhụrụ iji belata mbibi ma melite arụmọrụ eco.[2] Ọ bụ ezie na ụfọdụ ọzụzụ atụrụ dị mma na gburugburu ebe obibi, omume ugbo anụmanụ nke oge a na-emebi gburugburu ebe obibi karịa omume ugbo na-elekwasị anya na mkpụrụ osisi, akwụkwọ nri na biomass ndị ọzọ. Mmịpụta nke amonia sitere na nsị ehi na-aga n'ihu na-ebute nchegbu banyere mmetọ gburugburu ebe obibi.[3]

Mgbe ha na-enyocha mmetụta gburugburu ebe obibi, ndị ọkachamara na-eji ụdị ihe ngosi abụọ: "nke dabeere na ụzọ", nke dabere na usoro mmepụta nke onye ọrụ ugbo, na "dabere na mmetụta", nke usoro ọrụ ugbo nwere na usoro ọrụ ugbo ma ọ bụ na mmịpụta na gburugburu ebe obibi. Otu ihe atụ nke akara ngosi dabeere na ụzọ ga-abụ àgwà nke mmiri dị n'ime ala, nke na-emetụta ọnụ ọgụgụ nitrogen etinyere n'ala. Ihe ngosi na-egosipụta ọnwụ nke nitrate na mmiri dị n'ime ala ga-adabere na mmetụta.[4] Ntụle dabeere na ụzọ na-eleba anya n'omume ndị ọrụ ugbo nke ọrụ ugbo, na nyocha dabeere na mmetụta na-atụle mmetụta dị adị nke usoro ọrụ ugbo. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, nyocha dabeere na ụzọ nwere ike ileba anya na ọgwụ ahụhụ na usoro fatịlaịza nke ndị ọrụ ugbo na-eji, nyocha dabeere na mmetụta ga-atụle ole CO2 a na-ewepụta ma ọ bụ ihe ọdịnaya nitrogen nke ala bụ.[4]

Mmetụta gburugburu ebe obibi nke ọrụ ugbo na-agụnye mmetụta dị iche iche: ala, mmiri, ikuku, anụmanụ na ala dị iche iche, ndị mmadụ, osisi, na nri n'onwe ya. Ọrụ ugbo na-enye aka n'ọtụtụ nsogbu gburugburu ebe obibi nke na-akpata mmebi gburugburu ebe obibi gụnyere: mgbanwe ihu igwe, igbuchapụ ọhịa, ọnwụ nke ihe dị iche iche, mpaghara ndị nwụrụ anwụ, injinịa mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa, nsogbu ịgba mmiri, mmetọ, mmebi ala, na nsị.[5][6] N'ihi mkpa ọrụ ugbo dị na usoro mmekọrịta mmadụ na gburugburu ebe obibi zuru ụwa ọnụ, mba ụwa agbaala mbọ ịbawanye nkwado nke mmepụta nri dịka akụkụ nke a kpọrọ Sustainable Development Goal 2 siri kwuo sị: “Kwụsị agụụ, nweta nchekwa nri na nri na-edozi ahụ ma kwalite ọrụ ugbo na-adịgide adịgide.[7] Akụkọ otú United Nations Environment Programme nke afọ 2021 nke isiokwu ya bụ "Making Peace with Nature", n'asụsụ Bekee gosipụtara ọrụ ugbo dị ka onye ọkwọ ụgbọala na ụlọ ọrụ na-eyi egwu site na mmebi gburugburu ebe obibi.[8]

Site na ọrụ ugbo

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Ọrụ ugbo anụmanụ

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Nkesa Mmiri

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Ọgwụ Ụmụ Ahụhụ (Pesticides)

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Plastik

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Site na nsogbu gburugburu ebe obibi

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Mgbanwe ihu igwe

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  Mgbanwe ihu igwe na ọrụ ugbo bụ usoro nwere njikọ, ha abụọ na-ewere ọnọdụ n'ụwa niile. A na-atụ anya na okpomọkụ zuru ụwa ọnụ ga-enwe mmetụta dị ukwuu na ọnọdụ na-emetụta ọrụ ugbo, gụnyere okpomọkụ, mmiri ozuzo dị oké ukwuu na mmiri ozuzo. Ọnọdụ ndị a na-ekpebi ikike ibu nke biosphere iji mepụta nri zuru ezu maka ọnụ ọgụgụ mmadụ na anụ ụlọ. Ịrị elu nke carbon dioxide ga-enwekwa mmetụta, ma nke na-emerụ ahụ ma nke bara uru, na mkpụrụ ihe ọkụkụ. Ntụle nke mmetụta nke mgbanwe ihu igwe zuru ụwa ọnụ na ọrụ ugbo nwere ike inye aka ịtụ anya nke ọma ma gbanwee ọrụ ugbo iji mee ka mmepụta ọrụ ugbo dị ukwuu. Ọ bụ ezie na mmetụta nke mgbanwe ihu igwe na mmepụta ọrụ ugbo ejighị n'aka, o yikarịrị ka ọ ga-agbanwe mpaghara ndị kwesịrị ekwesị na-eto eto maka ihe ọkụkụ n'otu n'otu. Ntughari na mgbanwe mpaghara a ga-agụnye nnukwu ego akụ na ụba na mmetụta mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya.

N'otu oge ahụ, e gosipụtara na ọrụ ugbo na-emepụta mmetụta dị ịrịba ama na mgbanwe ihu igwe, ọkachasị site na mmepụta na ntọhapụ nke ikuku na-ekpo ọkụ dị ka carbon dioxide, methane, na nitrous oxide. Tụkwasị na nke a, ọrụ ugbo nke na-etirisi ala, imeju, na itinye ọgwụ ahụhụ na-ewepụta amonia, nitrate, phosphorus, na ọtụtụ ọgwụ ahụhụ ndị ọzọ na-emetụta ikuku, mmiri, na ịdị mma ala, yana ụdị ndụ dị iche iche.[4] Ọrụ ugbo na-agbanwekwa mkpuchi ala nke ụwa, nke nwere ike ịgbanwe ikike ya ịnara ma ọ bụ gosipụta okpomọkụ na ìhè, si otú a na-enye aka na ịmanye ọkụ. Mgbanwe ojiji ala dị ka igbuchapụ ọhịa na ọzara, tinyere iji mmanụ ala, bụ isi mmalite nke carbon dioxide; ọrụ ugbo n'onwe ya bụ isi ihe na-enye aka n'ịbawanye methane na nitrous oxide na mbara igwe ụwa.[9]

Ihe ka ọtụtụ n'ime ikuku methane na-esite na iji anụ ụlọ, ọkachasị ruminants dị ka ehi na ezì. Anụ ụlọ ndị ọzọ, dị ka ọkụkọ na azụ, nwere mmetụta dị ala.[10] A na-emepụta ụfọdụ ngwọta iji gbochie mmịpụta nke anụmanụ ndị nke na-atsgharị nri ha. Atụmatụ gụnyere iji biogas sitere na nsị, nhọrọ mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa, ịgba ọgwụ mgbochi ọrịa, mmebi nke rumen, asọmpi nke methanogenic archaea na acetogens, iwebata nje methanotrophic bacteria n'ime rumen, mgbanwe nri na njikwa azụmaahịa, n'etiti ndị ọzọ.[11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19] Mgbanwe ụfọdụ nke nri (dịka Asparagopsis taxiformis) na-enye ohere maka mbelata nke ihe ruru pasentị iri itoolu na itoolu (99%) na ikuku mmanụ gas na-ekpo ọkụ.[20][21] N'ihi mmetụta ọjọọ ndị a, kamakwa maka ihe kpatara ọrụ ugbo nke ọma (lee Nri vs. nri), otu atụmatụ na-ekwu banyere nnukwu mbelata nke anụ ụlọ ma ọ dịkarịa ala ụfọdụ anụmanụ (ya bụ ehi) na mba ụfọdụ site n'afọ 2030.[22][23]

Igbuchapụ ọhịa

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Igbuchapụ ọhịa na-ekpochapụ oké ọhịa nke ụwa n'ọtụtụ ụwa ọnụ ma na-akpata ọtụtụ mmebi ala. Otu n'ime ihe ndị na-akpata igbuchapụ ọhịa bụ ikpochapu ala maka ebe ịta nri ma ọ bụ ihe ọkụkụ. Dị ka onye Britain na-ahụ maka gburugburu ebe obibi bụ Norman Myers si kwuo, 5% nke igbuchapụ ọhịa bụ n'ihi ịzụ ehi, 19% n'ihi oke igodo osisi, 22% n'ihi ngalaba na-eto eto nke ubi mmanụ nkwụ, na 54% n'ihi ọrụ ugbo na-ere ọkụ.[24]

Igbuchapụ ọhịa na-akpata ọnwụ nke ebe obibi maka ọtụtụ nde ụdị, ọ bụkwa onye na-akpata mgbanwe ihu igwe. Osisi na-arụ ọrụ dị ka carbon sink: ya bụ, ha na-amịkọrọ carbon dioxide, gas na-ekpo ọkụ a na-achọghị, site na ikuku. Iwepụ osisi na-ewepụta carbon dioxide n'ime ikuku ma hapụ osisi ole na ole iji nweta ọnụ ọgụgụ na-arịwanye elu nke carbon dioxide na ikuku. N'ụzọ dị otú a, igbuchapụ ọhịa na-eme ka mgbanwe ihu igwe ka njọ. Mgbe e wepụrụ osisi n'ọhịa, ala na-akpọnwụ n'ihi na ndò adịghịzi, ọ dịghịkwa osisi zuru ezu iji nyere aka na usoro mmiri site na iweghachi ikuku mmiri na gburugburu ebe obibi. N'enweghị osisi, ala ndị bụbu ọhịa nwere ike ịghọ ọzara na-enweghị ihe ọ bụla. Mgbọrọgwụ osisi ahụ na-enyekwa aka ijide ala ọnụ, ya mere mgbe ewepụrụ ha, apịtị nwekwara ike ime. Iwepụ osisi na-akpatakwa oke mgbanwe na okpomọkụ.[25]

N'afọ 2000, otú United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) chọpụtara na "ọrụ nke ọnụ ọgụgụ mmadụ na mpaghara nwere ike ịdị iche site na mkpebi siri ike ruo na enweghị isi," nakwa na igbuchapụ ọhịa nwere ike ịpụta site na "njikọ nke nrụgide ọnụ ọgụgụ mmadụ na ọnọdụ akụ na ụba, mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya na nkà na ụzụ. "[26]

Injinia mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa

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Ihe ndị mmetọ

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Mmebi ala

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Mmebi ala bụ mbelata nke àgwà ala nke nwere ike ịbụ n'ihi ọtụtụ ihe, ọkachasị site na ọrụ ugbo. Ala nwere ihe ka ọtụtụ n'ime ihe dị iche iche dị n'ụwa, ala dị mma dịkwa mkpa maka mmepụta nri na mmiri zuru oke.[27] Àgwà ndị a na-ahụkarị nke mmebi ala nwere ike ịbụ nnu, mmiri mmiri, mkpakọ, mmetọ ọgwụ ahụhụ, mbelata nke ọdịdị ala, ọnwụ nke ọmụmụ, mgbanwe na acidity ala, alkaliity, salinity, na mmetọ. Mbelata ala bụ iyi ala elu site na mmiri, ifufe, ma ọ bụ ọrụ ugbo.[28] Ala elu na-eme nri nke ọma, nke na-eme ka ọ baa uru nye ndị ọrụ ugbo na-akọ ihe ọkụkụ.[28] Mmebi ala nwekwara mmetụta dị ukwuu na mmebi nke ihe ndị dị ndụ, nke na-emetụta obodo microbial nke ala ma nwee ike ịgbanwe ịgba ígwè na-edozi ahụ, njikwa ahụhụ na ọrịa, na mgbanwe kemịkal nke ala.[29]

Mbelata nke ugbo

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Ihe mkpofu

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Plasticulture bụ ojiji nke plastic mulch na ọrụ ugbo. Ndị ọrụ ugbo na-eji mpempe akwụkwọ plastik dị ka mulch iji kpuchie 50-70% nke ala ma nye ha ohere iji usoro ịgba mmiri iji nwee njikwa dị mma maka nri ala na mmiri. A chọghị mmiri ozuzo na usoro a, a na-arụkwa ugbo ndị na-eji plasticulture iji gbaa ume ka mmiri ozuzo na-agba ọsọ. Ojiji nke ọgwụ ahụhụ na plasticulture na-enye ohere ka a na-ebugharị ọgwụ ahụhụ n'ụzọ dị mfe n'elu mmiri na-aga n'ala mmiri ma ọ bụ iyi mmiri. Mmiri si na ọgwụ ahụhụ na kemịkal dị na plastik nwere ike ịkpata nnukwu nkwarụ na ọnwụ na shellfish ka mmiri na-ebute kemịkal ahụ n'oké osimiri.[30]

Na mgbakwunye na mmụba mmiri nke na-esite na plasticulture, enwerekwa nsogbu nke mmụba nke nsị sitere na plastik mulch n'onwe ya. Ojiji nke plastik mulch maka akwụkwọ nri, strawberries, na ihe ọkụkụ ndị ọzọ na ubi mkpụrụ osisi karịrị 110 nde pound kwa afọ na United States. Ihe ka ọtụtụ n'ime plastik na-ejedebe n'ime ala, ọ bụ ezie na enwere nhọrọ mkpofu ndị ọzọ dị ka disking mulches n'ime ala, ili n'ebe ahụ, nchekwa na saịtị, iji ya mee ihe ọzọ, imegharị ihe, na ọkụ. Nhọrọ ọkụ na imegharị ihe dị mgbagwoju anya site n'ụdị plastik dị iche iche a na-eji eme ihe na site na mgbasa mpaghara nke plastik. Plastik nwekwara stabilizers na dyes yana ọla dị arọ, nke na-egbochi ọnụ ọgụgụ ngwaahịa ndị nwere ike ịmegharị. A na-eme nnyocha mgbe niile banyere ịmepụta mulches biodegradable ma ọ bụ photodegradable. Ọ bụ ezie na enwere obere ihe ịga nke ọma na nke a, enwerekwa nsogbu nke ogologo oge plastik ahụ na-ewe iji mebie, dịka ọtụtụ ngwaahịa biodegradable na-ewe ogologo oge iji mebie.[31]

Nsogbu site na mpaghara

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Mmetụta gburugburu ebe obibi nke ọrụ ugbo nwere ike ịdị iche dabere na mpaghara yana ụdị usoro mmepụta ọrụ ugbo a na-eji. E depụtara n'okpuru ebe a bụ ụfọdụ nsogbu gburugburu ebe obibi na mpaghara dị iche iche gburugburu ụwa.

  • Iwepụ Hedgerow na United Kingdom.
  • Ala salinisation, ọkachasị na Australia.
  • Ngwuputa Phosphate na Nauru
  • Mmịpụta Methane sitere na anụ ụlọ na New Zealand. Lee mgbanwe ihu igwe na New Zealand.
  • Ndị na-ahụ maka gburugburu ebe obibi na-ekwu na mpaghara hypoxic dị na Gulf of Mexico dị ka nke a na-agba ume site na nitrogen fertilization nke okooko algae.
  • Usoro jikọtara ọnụ site na ahia ọrụ ugbo na-eduga na mmetụta mpaghara site na mmetụta cascading na usoro mmịfe. Ihe metụtara gburugburu ebe obibi (Socioeconomic Drivers Section)

Ọrụ ugbo na-adịgide adịgide

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Ọrụ ugbo na-adịgide adịgide bụ echiche na ọrụ ugbo kwesịrị ime n'ụzọ nke na anyị nwere ike ịnọgide na-emepụta ihe dị mkpa n'emebighị ikike maka ọgbọ ndị ga-abịa n'ihu ime otu ihe ahụ.

Ọnụ ọgụgụ mmadụ na-arịwanye elu n'ime iri afọ ndị na-adịbeghị anya emeela ka omume nke ntụgharị ala ọrụ ugbo iji gboo mkpa nri nke n'aka nke ya emeela ka mmetụta dị na gburugburu ebe obibi. Ọnụ ọgụgụ zuru ụwa ọnụ ka na-arịwanye elu ma ga-emesị kwụsie ike, dịka ụfọdụ ndị nkatọ na-enwe obi abụọ na mmepụta nri, n'ihi obere mkpụrụ sitere na okpomọkụ ụwa, nwere ike ịkwado ọnụ ọgụgụ zuru ụwa ọnụ.

Ọrụ ugbo nwekwara ike inwe mmetụta na-adịghị mma na ụdị ndụ dị iche iche.[5] Ugbo organic bụ usoro ọrụ ugbo na-adịgide adịgide nke nwere ike inwe mmetụta dị ala na gburugburu ebe obibi na obere ọnụ ọgụgụ. Otú ọ dị, n'ọtụtụ ọnọdụ, ọrụ ugbo organic na-eme ka mkpụrụ dị ala n'ihe gbasara mmepụta kwa mpaghara.[32] Ya mere, nnabata zuru oke nke ọrụ ugbo organic ga-achọ ka a kpochapụ ala ọzọ ma wepụta mmiri iji mezuo otu ọkwa mmepụta. Nnyocha nyocha nke mba Europe chọpụtara na ugbo organic na-enwekarị ọdịnaya dị elu nke ala na obere ihe na-edozi ahụ (nitrogen leaching, nitrous oxide emissions, na ammonia emissions) kwa unit nke mpaghara ubi mana elu ammonia emissions, nitrogen leaching na nitrous oxide emissions kwa unit ngwaahịa unit.[33] Ọtụtụ ndị kwenyere na usoro ọrụ ugbo nkịtị na-akpata obere ihe dị iche iche dị iche karịa usoro organic. Ugbo organic egosila na ọ nwere nkezi 30% ụdị ọgaranya dị elu karịa ọrụ ugbo nkịtị. Usoro organic na nkezi nwekwara 50% ọzọ organism. Data a nwere nsogbu ụfọdụ n'ihi na enwere ọtụtụ nsonaazụ nke gosipụtara mmetụta na-adịghị mma na ihe ndị a mgbe ị nọ na usoro ọrụ ugbo.[34] Mmegide na-emegide ọrụ ugbo organic kwenyere na ihe ndị a na-adịghị mma bụ ihe iseokwu na usoro ọrụ ugbo organic. Ihe malitere dị ka obere ọnụ ọgụgụ, omume na-ahụ maka gburugburu ebe obibi aghọwo ugbu a dị ka ụlọ ọrụ ugbo nkịtị. Mmepe ụlọ ọrụ mmepụta ihe a nwere ike ibute nsogbu ndị e gosipụtara n'elu dịka mgbanwe ihu igwe, na igbuchapụ ọhịa.

Ọrụ ugbo na-emegharị ihe

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Nkà

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Ugbo nchekwa

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Ugbo nchekwa bụ usoro ọzọ maka ọrụ ugbo nke na-adịgide adịgide maka ala na gburugburu ebe obibi.[35] A na-eme nke a site n'ikwe ka ihe fọdụrụ n'ihe ọkụkụ nke owuwe ihe ubi gara aga nọgide n'ime ala tupu ịkọ maka ihe ọkụkụ ọzọ. Ugbo nchekwa egosila na ọ na-eme ka ọtụtụ ihe dị mma dị ka njigide mmiri ala, ma belata mmetọ. Ọghọm ụfọdụ bụ eziokwu ahụ bụ na a chọrọ ngwá ọrụ dị oke ọnụ maka usoro a, ọ ga-adị mkpa iji ọgwụ ahụhụ ndị ọzọ, mmetụta dị mma na-ewe ogologo oge iji pụta ìhè.[35] Ihe mgbochi nke ịmepụta iwu nchekwa ugbo bụ na ndị ọrụ ugbo na-ala azụ ịgbanwe usoro ha, ma na-eme mkpesa maka usoro ọrụ ugbo dị oke ọnụ, na nke na-ewe oge karịa nke a na-ahụkarị ha na-eji.[36]

Nchịkwa ụmụ ahụhụ

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Page 'Biological pest control' not found

Leekwa

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  • Agroecology
  • Mmetọ ọrụ ugbo
  • Agro-hydro-salinity model (maka mmetụta gburugburu ebe obibi nke ọrụ ugbo mmiri)
  • Paspọtụ Ngwaahịa Digital
  • Mmetụta gburugburu ebe obibi nke mmepụta anụ
  • Nri omume
  • Fermentation
  • Anụ analogue
  • Mmetụta gburugburu ebe obibi nke mbubata soybean na EU
  • Single cell protein
  • Ihe onwunwe na-adịghị mma na ngalaba ọrụ ugbo na azụmaahịa
  • Ọrụ nri ụmụ anụmanụ
  • Ndepụta nke nsogbu gburugburu ebe obibi
  • Ebe obibi
  • Nchịkwa zuru oke
  • <i id="mwAXs">Ogologo onyinyo anụ ụlọ - Nsogbu gburugburu ebe obibi na nhọrọ</i>
Akụkọ nke Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
  • Ụkpụrụ nke Organic Agriculture
  • Ụlọ ọrụ nyocha maka ọrụ ugbo organic
  • Ọrụ ugbo na-enweghị ngwaahịa
  • Mbelata nke ugbo

Ebenside

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  1. ↑ Frouz (2022). "Applied Ecology" (in en-gb). DOI:10.1007/978-3-030-83225-4. 
  2. ↑ Gołaś (October 2020). "On the Way to Sustainable Agriculture—Eco-Efficiency of Polish Commercial Farms" (in en). Agriculture 10 (10): 438. DOI:10.3390/agriculture10100438. 
  3. ↑ Naujokienė (April 2021). "A Biotreatment Effect on Dynamics of Cattle Manure Composition and Reduction of Ammonia Emissions from Agriculture" (in en). Agriculture 11 (4): 303. DOI:10.3390/agriculture11040303. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 van der Warf (December 2002). "Evaluation of the environmental impact of agriculture at the farm level: a comparison and analysis of 12 indicator- methods". Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 93 (1–3): 131–145. DOI:10.1016/S0167-8809(01)00354-1. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Garnett (2013-07-04). "Sustainable Intensification in Agriculture: Premises and Policies". Science 341 (6141): 33–34. DOI:10.1126/science.1234485. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 23828927. 
  6. ↑ Tilman (2011-12-13). "Global food demand and the sustainable intensification of agriculture" (in en). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108 (50): 20260–20264. DOI:10.1073/pnas.1116437108. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 22106295. 
  7. ↑ United Nations (2015) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 25 September 2015, Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (A/RES/70/1)
  8. ↑ United Nations Environment Programme (2021). Making Peace with Nature: A scientific blueprint to tackle the climate, biodiversity and pollution emergencies. Nairobi. https://www.unep.org/resources/making-peace-nature
  9. ↑ UN Report on Climate Change. Archived from the original on 2007-11-14. Retrieved on 25 June 2007.
  10. ↑ Livestock Farming Systems and their Environmental Impact
  11. ↑ Monteny (2006). "Greenhouse Gas Abatement Strategies for Animal Husbandry, Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment". Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 112 (2–3): 163–70. DOI:10.1016/j.agee.2005.08.015. 
  12. ↑ Bovine genomics project at Genome Canada. Archived from the original on 2019-08-10. Retrieved on 2022-04-21.
  13. ↑ Canada is using genetics to make cows less gassy
  14. ↑ Joblin (1999). "Ruminal acetogens and their potential to lower ruminant methane emissions". Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 50 (8): 1307. DOI:10.1071/AR99004. 
  15. ↑ The use of direct-fed microbials for mitigation of ruminant methane emissions: a review
  16. ↑ Parmar (2015). "Exploring diet-dependent shifts in methanogen and methanotroph diversity in the rumen of Mehsani buffalo by a metagenomics approach". Frontiers in Life Science 8 (4): 371–378. DOI:10.1080/21553769.2015.1063550. 
  17. ↑ Boadi (2004). "Mitigation strategies to reduce enteric methane emissions from dairy cows: Update review". Can. J. Anim. Sci. 84 (3): 319–335. DOI:10.4141/a03-109. 
  18. ↑ Martin, C. et al. 2010. Methane mitigation in ruminants: from microbe to the farm scale. Animal 4 : pp 351-365.
  19. ↑ Eckard (2010). "Options for the abatement of methane and nitrous oxide from ruminant production: A review". Livestock Science 130 (1–3): 47–56. DOI:10.1016/j.livsci.2010.02.010. 
  20. ↑ Machado (2014-01-22). "Effects of Marine and Freshwater Macroalgae on In Vitro Total Gas and Methane Production". PLOS ONE 9 (1): e85289. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0085289. ISSN 1932-6203. PMID 24465524. 
  21. ↑ "Seaweed could hold the key to cutting methane emissions from cow burps - CSIROscope", CSIROscope, 2016-10-14.
  22. ↑ Rethink X: food and agriculture
  23. ↑ Rethinking agriculture report
  24. ↑ Hance (May 15, 2008). Tropical deforestation is 'one of the worst crises since we came out of our caves'. Mongabay.com / A Place Out of Time: Tropical Rainforests and the Perils They Face. Archived from the original on May 29, 2012.
  25. ↑ Deforestation. National Geographic. Retrieved on 24 April 2015.
  26. ↑ Alain Marcoux (August 2000). Population and deforestation. SD Dimensions. Sustainable Development Department, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Archived from the original on 2011-06-28.
  27. ↑ Soil Degradation. Office of Environment Heritage. Retrieved on 23 April 2015.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Soil Erosion – Causes and Effects (en-ca). www.omafra.gov.on.ca. Retrieved on 2018-04-11.
  29. ↑ Agricultural Land Use Issues. National Estuarine Research Reserve System. Archived from the original on 24 April 2015. Retrieved on 23 April 2015.
  30. ↑ Kidd (1999–2000). "Pesticides and Plastic Mulch Threaten the Health of Maryland and Virginia East Shore Waters". Pesticides and You 19 (4): 22–23. Retrieved on 23 April 2015. 
  31. ↑ Hemphill (March 1993). "Agricultural Plastics as Solid Waste: What are the Options for Disposal?". HortTechnology 3 (1): 70–73. DOI:10.21273/HORTTECH.3.1.70. Retrieved on 23 April 2015. 
  32. ↑ Seufert (25 April 2012). "Comparing the yields of organic and conventional agriculture". Nature 485 (7397): 229–232. DOI:10.1038/nature11069. PMID 22535250. 
  33. ↑ Tuomisto (December 2012). "Does organic farming reduce environmental impacts? – A meta-analysis of European research". Journal of Environmental Management 112: 309–320. DOI:10.1016/j.jenvman.2012.08.018. PMID 22947228. 
  34. ↑ Bengtsson (2005-04-01). "The effects of organic agriculture on biodiversity and abundance: a meta-analysis" (in en). Journal of Applied Ecology 42 (2): 261–269. DOI:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2005.01005.x. ISSN 1365-2664. 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Conservation tillage | ClimateTechWiki (en). www.climatetechwiki.org. Archived from the original on 2017-05-05. Retrieved on 2017-05-04.
  36. ↑ Holland (2004-06-01). "The environmental consequences of adopting conservation tillage in Europe: reviewing the evidence". Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 103 (1): 1–25. DOI:10.1016/j.agee.2003.12.018. 

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