Ime udo maka gburugburu ebe obibi

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Iwu udo gburugburu ebe obibi (nke a na-akpọkarị ime udo gburugburu ebe dị) na-enyocha ma na-akwado nchedo gburugburu ebe obibi na imekọ ihe ọnụ dị ka ihe na-emepụta mmekọrịta udo. Iwu udo bụ ma echiche na omume nke ịchọpụta ọnọdụ ndị nwere ike iduga n'udo na-adịgide adịgide n'etiti ndị iro gara aga, ugbu a ma ọ bụ ndị nwere ike ịbịa n'ọdịnihu. N'ọkwa kachasị mkpa, agha na-ebibi usoro okike na ụzọ ndụ nke ndị na-adabere na ihe onwunwe okike, ọgba aghara nke ọnọdụ esemokwu na-eduga n'iji ihe onwunwa okike eme ihe n'ụzọ a na-achịkwaghị achịkwa, mbibi. Igbochi mmetụta ndị a na-enye ohere maka njem dị mfe maka udo na-adịgide adịgide.[1] Site n'echiche dị mma karị, imekọ ihe ọnụ gburugburu ebe obibi nwere ike ịbụ otu n'ime ebe ndị iro nwere ike ịnọgide na-enwe mkparịta ụka, na mmepe na-adịgide adịgide bụ ihe dị mkpa maka udo na-adịgidere adịgide.[2][3]

Definitions[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Nnyocha nke iwu udo (okwu nke Galtung chepụtara, 1975) na-etolite site na mmasị n'ịchọpụta ọnọdụ ndị na-eduga karịa nkwụsịtụ nke ime ihe ike ruo n'oge na-adịgide adịgide nke njikwa esemokwu na imekọ ihe ọnụ n'etiti ndị bụbu ndị iro ma ọ bụ nwere ike itinye aka na esemokwu na-ebibi ihe n'ọdịnihu.[4] Dị ka ndị isi na-eche echiche dị ka Galtung ma ọ bụ Lederach si chee, iwu udo na-ezo aka na mgbanwe zuru oke na ogologo oge nke ọnọdụ esemokwu gaa n'ụdị udo na-adịghị mma na nke kachasị mma.[5] Malite na odeakwụkwọ ukwu Boutros Boutros-Ghali na-akwalite Agenda for Peace na 1992, United Nations nabatara asụsụ nke iwu udo mgbe esemokwu gasịrị ma mepụta mmemme dabere na ya.[6]

Nnyocha ndị e mere n'oge na-adịbeghị anya achọpụtala echiche abụọ dị mkpa: echiche imekọ ihe ọnụ na-akpali site na ikike nke imekọ ọnụ gburugburu ebe obibi iji nye aka n'udo site na mmetụta nke nsị. Echiche a na-elekwasị anya na ọkwa interstate na mgbe mgbe na mgbochi esemokwu karịa iwu udo mgbe esemokwu gasịrị. N'ụzọ dị iche, echiche nke ihe ize ndụ akụ na ụba na-amata ọgba aghara nke ihe onwunwe kpatara, ọkachasị mgbe esemokwu dị n'ime obodo gasịrị, ma mesie ike mkpa ọ dị ibelata ihe ize ndụ ndị a iji kwado enweghị ime ihe ike (udo na-adịghị mma), site n'ime ka mmekọrịta gburugburu ebe obibi dị mfe.[7]

Nkọwa ziri ezi nke iwu udo gburugburu ebe obibi dịgasị iche n'etiti akwụkwọ agụmakwụkwọ na iwu dị iche iche, a na-ejikarị okwu ahụ eme ihe na echiche dị ka ime udo gburugburu ebe ahụ, nkwekọrịta ọdachi ma ọ bụ udo gburugburu ebe dị. The Environmental Peacebuilding Association na-eji nkọwa na-esonụ: "Ime udo gburugburu ebe obibi na-ejikọta njikwa akụ okike na mgbochi esemokwu, ibelata, mkpebi, na mgbake iji wulite ume n'ime obodo ndị esemokwu metụtara. "[8] Otu nyocha akwụkwọ, nke e bipụtara na 2018, na-atụ aro na enwere ike iji iwu udo gburugburu ebe obibi na-ezo aka na "ụdị mmekọrịta niile na nsogbu gburugburu ebe obibi n'etiti ìgwè mmadụ dị iche iche, nke na-achọ na / ma ọ bụ nweta ịmepụta mmekọrịta na-adịghị ike na nke udo n'etiti ndị a".[9] N'ọnọdụ a, a na-aghọta udo n'ụzọ doro anya na-ezo aka n'ụdị udo na-adịghị mma (enweghị ime ihe ike) yana ụdị udo dị mma (ikpe ziri ezi na enweghị ike iche n'echiche nke esemokwu ime ihe ike).[10] N'ụzọ yiri nke ahụ, Krampe na Swain na-atụ aro na "a pụrụ ịkọwa udo gburugburu ebe obibi dị ka njikwa na-adịgide adịgide nke ihe ndị sitere n'okike iji gbochie esemokwu ma wulite udo - tupu, n'oge, ma ọ bụ mgbe esemokwu gasịrị - na-ekwusi ike na ikike maka imekọ ihe ọnụ gburugburu ebe obibi iji kwado udo na nkwụsi ike. "[11]

Usoro[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Iwu udo gburugburu ebe obibi nwere ike ịpụta site na mgbalị otu onye ma ọ bụ site na mmekorita n'etiti ndị otu abụọ na-emegide ibe ha. Ndị na-eme ihe nkiri dị ka ndị na-enye onyinye mba ụwa, gọọmentị ma ọ bụ ndị obodo nwere ike ịrụ ọrụ n'onwe ha ma ọ bụ soro ndị ọzọ na-etinye aka dozie nsogbu gburugburu ebe obibi na njikwa akụ na ụba nke na-ebute ma ọ bụ nwere ike ịmepụta esemokwu. Mgbalị ndị a nwere ike, n'amaghị ama ma ọ bụ n'amagye, ịkpata ọnọdụ udo site na, dịka ọmụmaatụ, ịbawanye ntụkwasị obi, ịgba ume imekọ ihe ọnụ ma ọ bụ ịmepụta ụlọ ọrụ ọhụrụ (lee, dịka ihe atụ, Nile Basin Initiative ma ọ bụ Mekong River Commission).[2] Ọ bụrụ na a na-enye akụrụngwa mmiri n'obodo ndị agha gachara, ndị agha gara aga nwere ike ịnata nkwado iji wuo ụzọ ndị ọzọ (dịka, ala, anya na ọzụzụ maka ọrụ ugbo), ma ọ bụ enwere ike ijikwa ihe onwunwe bara uru (dịka mmanụ, gas) iji belata mkpesa, mbibi gburugburu ebe obibi na mmetụta ọbụbụ ọnụ.[12][13] Kemgbe afọ 1990, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) etinyela iwu udo na esemokwu gburugburu ebe obibi na atụmatụ ya, mee nyocha gburugburu ebe obibi nke mpaghara esemokwu, ma tụọ aro njikọta siri ike nke nsogbu gburugburu ebe obibi n'ime ọrụ nke UN Peacebuilding Commission.[14][3][15]

Otu edemede nke 2021 mere mgbalị iji zụlite echiche echiche banyere ihe mere iwu udo gburugburu ebe obibi ga-eduga n'udo. N'ịdabere na ọrụ mbụ nke Ken Conca, ọmụmụ ihe ahụ na-atụ aro usoro atọ nwere ike ime "nke a na-ekwu na ọ ka mma ọchịchị ihe okike na ọnọdụ ndị na-esote esemokwu nwere mmetụta dị mma na udo: (a) echiche kọntaktị, ebe ọ na-eme ka mmekọrịta dị n'etiti ìgwè na-ebelata ajọ mbunobi na ajọ mbunobe; (b) mgbasa nke ụkpụrụ mba na mba, ebe iwebata ụkpụrụ gburugburu ebe obibi na ezi ọchịchị ndị ọzọ na-akwado ike mmadụ ma na-emeziwanye mkpa ha, na-eme na-emechi ọrụ gọọmentị ha, ebe inye ọrụ gọọmentụ na-eme ihe na-eme, ebe ahụ.[16][17]

Ihe mgbochi nke agụmakwụkwọ[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Ọ bụ ezie na e nwere ọnụ ọgụgụ dị ukwuu nke nyocha dabere na ikpe, nke na-enyocha mmetụta nke ọrụ ma ọ bụ atụmatụ iwu udo gburugburu ebe obibi (lee "iwu udo gburugburu ebe dị na Middle East" na "iwu udo na mpaghara ụwa ndị ọzọ" n'okpuru), enwere obere N, nyocha ọnụ ọgụgụ dị na isiokwu a nke na-eme ka o sie ike ịchọpụta na atụmatụ udo dị otú ahụ bụ ihe kpatara ya, karịa nsonaazụ, nke mmekọrịta udo n'etiti steeti.[18]

Ime udo gburugburu ebe obibi na Middle East[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Nzukọ Madrid nke 1991, nke United States na USSR kwadoro, kpọkọtara ndị nnọchi anya gọọmentị Israel, Syria, Lebanon, na Jọdan, na ndị nnọchianya Palestine n'ime ndị nnọchi nke Jọdan. Nzukọ ahụ guzobere otu ọrụ na ndị gbara ọsọ ndụ, nchekwa mpaghara, mmepe akụ na ụba, mmiri, na gburugburu ebe obibi. Ìgwè ndị na-arụ ọrụ na mmiri na gburugburu ebe obibi, na ruo n'ókè ụfọdụ nke na-ahụ maka mmepe akụ na ụba, nwere atụmatụ nke iweta imekọ ihe ọnụ gburugburu ebe obibi na mmepe na-adịgide adịgide n'ime nhazi nke ụzọ na-adịgidere adịgide

Nkwekọrịta Oslo nke sochiri n'etiti Israel na Palestine Liberation Organization na nkwekọrịta udo n'etiti Jordan na Israel nke ọ bụla nwere ngalaba nke chepụtara kọmitii jikọrọ aka na mmiri, imekọ ihe ọnụ na mmepe akụ na ụba. Mgbe mkparịta ụka dị n'etiti Israel na Palestinian Authority kwụsịrị na mmekọrịta ọzọ ghọrọ nnukwu esemokwu, ọganihu na imekọ ihe ọnụ na mmiri, gburugburu ebe obibi na mmepe na-adịgide adịgide kwụsịrị. N'ọkwa iwu, enwere kọntaktị n'etiti ndị ọrụ gọọmentị na ndị ọkachamara, a na-eme ka akụrụngwa mmiri ghara ime ihe ike nke Intifadah nke Abụọ, ma enwere ụfọdụ mmekọrịta - nke a na-ekwupụtabeghị n'ọtụtụ ebe - na nchegbu mmiri na gburugburu ebe obibi. E nweela mmekọrịta mmekọrịta dị n'etiti Jọdan na Izrel mana ọganihu na-egbochi site na mmetụta nke esemokwu Palestine na Israel a na-edozighị edozi.

Ọrụ ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị na-ewu udo gburugburu ebe obibi na mpaghara ahụ agbakwunyere site na mmepe nke obere netwọk nke òtù ndị obodo na-akwalite ma na-eme mmekorita gburugburu ebe obibi mpaghara.[19][20]

Òtù ndị na-etinye aka n'iwu udo gburugburu ebe obibi na Middle East[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Israel-Palestine Center for Research and Information[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

IPCRI meghere na 1989 n'oge Intifada mbụ n'okpuru ndị nduzi Israel na Palestine. IPCRI guzobere ngalaba Mmiri na Gburugburu Ebe Obibi na 1992. Akwụkwọ edepụtara na 1993 gosipụtara echiche ndị Palestine na ndị Israel banyere imekọ ihe ọnụ mmiri. Ọmụmụ ihe IPCRI atọ e mere n'etiti afọ 1994-6 na "Our Shared Environment" sochiri mpịakọta akwụkwọ atọ sitere na ọmụmụ ihe. Ngalaba mmiri na gburugburu ebe obibi nke IPCRI butere ụzọ n'ịhazi nzukọ mba ụwa "Mmiri maka Ndụ" nke Israel na Palestine na 2004, nke ndị prọfesọ Israel na Palestine so na ya, nke emere na Turkey, ebe ihe karịrị ụbọchị ise ihe dị ka ndị otu narị na iri atọ si n'ógbè ahụ sonyeere ihe dị ka mmadụ iri ise mba ụwa na mmiri.

N'ikpeazụ, na-arụkọ ọrụ na ndị ọkachamara Israel na Palestine, IPCRI mere nyocha nke njikwa nke Nahal Alexander / Wadi Zomer. IPCRI bụ onye mmekọ na "GLOWA Jordan River" ọmụmụ banyere mmetụta nke mgbanwe ihu igwe na ọdọ mmiri Jọdan, ma rụọ ọrụ, na nkwado nke Gọọmentị Japan, iji nye ihe nlereanya maka ịdị ọcha dị ala na obodo West Bank.

Udo gburugburu ebe obibi Middle East[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

E guzobere EcoPeace Middle East na 1994 dị ka ebe nzukọ maka ndị Palestine, ndị Ijipt, ndị Jọdan na ndị Israel na-ahụ maka gburugburu ebe obibi ma ghọọ onye mmekọ nke Friends of the Earth na 1998. EcoPeace nwere ọtụtụ ọrụ - nke a haziri gburugburu mpaghara ụfọdụ (ndagwurugwu Osimiri Jọdan, Oké Osimiri Nwụrụ Anwụ, Ọwara Aqaba / Eilat), mmiri (Ndị agbata obi Mmiri Dị Mma, Oké Osimira Uhie-Oké Osimiri Nwuru Anwụ, ugwu mmiri, "mmiri, udo na gburugburu ebe obibi," nnwere onwe mmiri), na iwu gburugburu ebe obibi (mmepe na-adịgide adịgide, mgbanwe ihu igwe, "esemokwu ime ihe ike na gburugburu ebe dị gburugburu ebe obibi", azụmahịa na gburugburu ebe nrụọrụ weebụ, ike anyanwụ na nri dị mma). FoEME akwalitewo nchebe karịa mmepe nke Oké Osimiri Nwụrụ Anwụ na nhọpụta ya dị ka UNESCO World Heritage Site, kwadoro nguzobe nke "ogige udo" n'akụkụ Osimiri Jọdan, ma jụọ nnukwu ọrụ a tụrụ aro iji mee ka mmiri si n'Oké Osimiri Agụ gaa n'Osimiri Nwụrụ Nwụ. Òtù NGO na-ekesa akwụkwọ akụkọ "ime udo gburugburu ebe obibi" kwa ọnwa.

Kemgbe afọ 2001 ọrụ EcoPeace Good Water Neighbors na-arụ ọrụ na obodo Israel, Palestine na Jọdan ndị na-adabere na ibe ha na mmiri mmiri. Obodo ọ bụla na obodo agbata obi ya na-arụkọ ọrụ. Good Water Neighbors na-arụ ọrụ na ndị obodo na-ahụ maka mmata na mmepe mmiri. GWN na-eji ịdabere na isi iyi mmiri dị ka ihe ndabere maka mkparịta ụka na imekọ ihe ọnụ n'etiti obodo ndị jikọrọ aka. EcoPeace nwere akụkụ agụmakwụkwọ dị mkpa, gụnyere ịrụ ọrụ n'ụlọ akwụkwọ na ụmụ akwụkwọ, ọzụzụ ndị nkuzi na ọzụzụ azụmaahịa ahịhịa ndụ.[21]

EcoPeace ebipụtala nyocha nke ya banyere iwu udo gburugburu ebe obibi.[22] Ụfọdụ nnyocha mpụga na EcoPeace na Good Water Neighbors ekwuola na ha na-enye obere onyinye ma dị mma maka iwu udo na nchedo gburugburu ebe obibi na Middle East, n'adịghị ka nyocha ndị ọzọ na-akatọ ma na-enwe obi abụọ nke na-eme ka mmetụta ha dị ala pụta ìhè.[23][24][25]

Nnụnụ Na-agafe Agafe Amaghị Ihe Mkpa[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Ebumnuche nke atụmatụ a bụ ichekwa ndụ nnụnụ na-agafe ókèala na mpaghara ahụ. Iji mee nke a, ọ na-ejikọta ndị Israel, ndị Jọdan na ndị Palestine, ya mere na-emekwa ka mgbanwe na imekọ ihe ọnụ gafee ókèala, dịka ọmụmaatụ iji guzobe igbe maka ụmụ owls. Ihe omume ndị ọzọ gụnyere lobbying maka ndị na-eme mkpebi, ogbako na ndị ọrụ ugbo na ọrụ agụmakwụkwọ n'ụlọ akwụkwọ. Ọ bụ onye ọkà mmụta sayensị nke Mahadum Tel Aviv bụ Yossi Leshem guzobere Migrating Birds Know No Boundaries ma ndị na-eme mkpebi a ma ama dị ka onye bụbu ọchịagha IDF Baruch Spiegel na onye ọchịagha Jordan lara ezumike nká Mansour Abu Rashid na-akwado ya.[26][27]

Iwu udo gburugburu ebe obibi na mpaghara ndị ọzọ[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

A na-arụkwa ọrụ udo gburugburu ebe obibi na mpaghara ndị ọzọ.

Na Southern Africa, e guzobere ọtụtụ ogige ntụrụndụ udo na-agafe ókèala site na nkwado nke Peace Parks Foundation kemgbe afọ 1990, dị ka Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park (Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe), Kgalagadi Transfrontier ogige ntụgharị (Botswana, South Africa), Maloti-Drakensberg Transfrontier Conservation and Development Area (Lesotho, South Africa) na Lubombo Conservancy (Eswatini, Mozambique, South Africa).[28] Nnyocha nke ọrụ ndị a na-egosipụtakarị ọtụtụ akụkụ na-adịghị mma, dị ka ịchịkwa South Africa, mwepu nke ndị bi n'ógbè ahụ na steeti na ọdịmma azụmahịa, yana mmetụta dị ala na mmekọrịta udo nke mba ụwa.[29] Nkwekọrịta nchekwa n'etiti DR Congo, Rwanda na Uganda na mpaghara Virunga, n'ụzọ dị iche, a na-akọ na ọ rụpụtara ụfọdụ uru nchekwa na udo ọ bụ ezie na ọ mere na gburugburu ebe obibi nke nwere ọgba aghara ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị na obere mmepe akụ na ụba.[30] Enwekwara ihe ndị na-eme n'okpuru ala nke imekọ ihe ọnụ gburugburu ebe obibi n'etiti esemokwu dị n'etiti ndị na-azụ anụ na ndị ọrụ ugbo n'ọtụtụ mba Afrịka, gụnyere Ghana[31] na Kenya.[32]

Na Europe, iwu udo gburugburu ebe obibi emeela na, dịka ọmụmaatụ, Saịprọs[33] na Kosovo, na-elekwasị anya n'ịchịkwa ihe onwunwe mmiri a na-ekerịta gafee ókèala ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị.[34] A tụkwara aro ogige ntụrụndụ udo gafere ókèala maka mpaghara Balkan.[35] Ka ọ dị ugbu a, a kwenyere na atụmatụ ndị a na-agba ume imekọ ihe ọnụ n'etiti (ndị bụbu) òtù esemokwu, mana ọ bụghị ihe doro anya mmetụta ha na usoro udo.

Latin America ahụwokwa ụfọdụ ọrụ udo gburugburu ebe obibi na-agbanye mgbọrọgwụ, gụnyere nguzobe nke ebe nchekwa na mpaghara a na-ejighị agha na Cordillera del Cóndor nke kwadoro Ecuador na Peru n'idozi esemokwu ha ogologo oge na 1998.[2] Nkwado gburugburu ebe obibi n'ihe gbasara Central American Commission for Environment and Development (CCAD) na mpaghara Trifinio ka a kọrọ na o nyere aka kwụsị esemokwu n'etiti El Salvador na Honduras na mbido afọ 1990.[36]

Eshia ahụla ọtụtụ atụmatụ udo dị iche iche maka gburugburu ebe obibi. Njikọ mmiri n'akụkụ Oké Osimiri Aral rụrụ ọrụ iji melite mmekọrịta dị n'etiti steeti n'afọ ndị 1990, ọ bụ ezie na ọ pụghị igbochi ọdachi gburugburu ebe obibi na mpaghara ahụ.[10] N'otu aka ahụ, Permanent Indus Commission na Mekong River Commission enyewo ohere maka imekọ ihe ọnụ metụtara gburugburu ebe obibi na mgbanwe ọbụna n'oge esemokwu, ọ bụ ezie na mmetụta na mmekọrịta mba ụwa ka ukwuu kwenyere na ọ dị ntakịrị.[37][38][39] A na-akọkwa na mbọ UNEP na-agba iji dozie ala Iraqi Marshlands nyere aka n'ụzọ na-apụtaghị ìhè n'ịmepụta udo site na iweghachi ụzọ ndụ na mpaghara ahụ, ebe na steeti dị iche iche nke Afrịka, e nwere ihe ndekọ nke ọma nke iwu udo gburugburu ebe obibi (dị ka gburugburu ihe onwunwe mmiri na Yemen) nke a kọrọ na ọ kpatara nsonaazụ dị mma.[40][41]

Ndị nkatọ[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Ọ bụ ezie na iwu udo gburugburu ebe obibi na-ezube idozi nsogbu ndị metụtara udo na gburugburu ebe obibi n'otu oge ma na-enye anya dị mma na nke na-adịchaghị mkpa na nchekwa gburugburu ebe obibi, a katọwokwa ya dịka echiche na omume. Ụfọdụ ndị na-eme nchọpụta ekwuola na iwu udo gburugburu ebe obibi na-atụ aro ụzọ mmeri ma na-eme ka mmekọrịta gburugburu ebe obibi dị mma, nke nwere ihe ize ndụ nke na-ebute ngwọta teknụzụ nke na-ekpuchi esemokwu ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị na enweghị nhata nke mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya.[42][25][43] Dịka ọmụmaatụ, ogige ntụrụndụ udo dị n'ebe ndịda Afrịka yana nnukwu mmekorita mmiri nwere ike ịkpata nchụpụ nke ndị bi n'ógbè ahụ na esemokwu.[44][45] Ụfọdụ ndị ọkà mmụta na-egosi etu usoro teknụzụ maka iwu udo gburugburu ebe obibi si rụọ ọrụ dị ka ihe nchebe, si otú ahụ na-eme ka ndị na-eme ihe nkiri gburugburu ebe obibi bụrụ ndị ziri ezi na ọnọdụ esemokwu.[46] Iwu udo gburugburu ebe obibi nwekwara ike ịbụ ihe ngọpụ maka iji ihe onwunwe eme ihe, n'etiti ihe ndị ọzọ na-adịghị mma.[47][10] Nnyocha ndị e mere n'oge na-adịbeghị anya banyere United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) " Environmental Cooperation for Peacebuilding Programme (2008-2015) na-egosikwa na akụkọ mmemme na-eme ka ndị na-eme ihe nkiri mpaghara - ma steeti ma ndị na-abụghị steeti - dị ka ihe ize ndụ n'ihe gbasara njikwa akụ okike. Nnyocha ahụ na-ekwu na nke a ga-emetụta ọrụ iwu udo n'ụzọ na-adịghị mma, n'ihi na "iji akụkọ ndị a dị ka ihe ọzụzụ maka UNEP na ndị ọrụ UN ndị ọzọ nwere ike ime ka ndị ọrụ ghara itinye aka na steeti na ndị na-abụghị steeti, yana dị ka nke a nwere ike igbochi njikwa na-adịgide adịgide nke ihe onwunwe, yana imetụta mgbalị iwu udo. "[48]

Mmekọrịta ndị ọkachamara[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

E guzobere Environmental Peacebuilding Association iji gaa n'ihu na mgbanwe, nyocha na ọzụzụ na iwu udo gburugburu ebe obibi. Ọ na-eduzi nzukọ na ogbako na okwu ahụ ma na-akwado ọtụtụ onyinye, gụnyere Al-Moumin Award na Distinguished Lecture on Environmental Peacebuilding.[8] Ọ mepụtara MOOC na iwu udo gburugburu ebe obibi.[49] Njikọ ahụ na-emepụta mmelite kwa izu (ma ọ bụ akwụkwọ akụkọ) nke nwere ozi gbasara mbipụta, ihe omume, ọnọdụ na mmepe ndị metụtara iwu udo gburugburu ebe obibi.

Hụkwa[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

  • Nchebe ihu igwe
  • Ime Udo
  • Nchebe gburugburu ebe obibi

Ihe odide[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

  1. ↑ Pugh (December 2008). "Challenges and opportunities of human conflict and environmental transformation in Ecuadorian highlands". Pirineos 163: 63–75. DOI:10.3989/pirineos.2008.v163.22. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Carius, A. (2006). Environmental Peacebuilding: Cooperation as an Instrument of Crisis Prevention and Peacebuilding: Conditions for Success and Constraints. The German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Halle, S. (Editor). (2009). From Conflict to Peacebuilding: The Role of Natural Resources and Environment. United Nations Environment Programme. Nairobi: Kenya.
  4. ↑ Galtung, Johan. 1975. "Three approaches to peace: peacekeeping, peacemaking and peacebuilding." In Peace, War and Defence - Essays in Peace Research Vol. 2, 282-304. Copenhagen: Christian Ejlers.
  5. ↑ Lederach, John Paul. Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press) 1997.
  6. ↑ UN Secretary-General. 1992. "An Agenda for peace: preventive diplomacy, peacemaking and peace-keeping." UN Doc. A/47/277. June 17.
  7. ↑ Krampe (2017-09-29). "Toward Sustainable Peace: A New Research Agenda for Post-Conflict Natural Resource Management". Global Environmental Politics 17 (4): 1–8. DOI:10.1162/GLEP_a_00431. ISSN 1526-3800. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Environmental Peacebuilding | Welcome to Environmental Peacebuilding. environmentalpeacebuilding.org. Retrieved on 2019-02-18.
  9. ↑ Ide (2018-03-23). "The Impact of Environmental Cooperation on Peacemaking: Definitions, Mechanisms, and Empirical Evidence". International Studies Review 21 (3): 327–346. DOI:10.1093/isr/viy014. ISSN 1521-9488. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Conca (2002). Environmental peacemaking. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-7193-1. 
  11. ↑ Krampe (2021-07-29). Environmental Peacebuilding (en). The Oxford Handbook of Peacebuilding, Statebuilding, and Peace Formation 562–578. DOI:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190904418.013.40. Retrieved on 2021-07-19.
  12. ↑ Environmental Peacebuilding | Water and Post-Conflict Peacebuilding. environmentalpeacebuilding.org. Archived from the original on 2016-09-01. Retrieved on 2019-02-18.
  13. ↑ Environmental Peacebuilding | Governance, Natural Resources, and Post-Conflict Peacebuilding. environmentalpeacebuilding.org. Archived from the original on 2016-10-08. Retrieved on 2019-02-18.
  14. ↑ UNEP. (2004). Understanding Environment, Conflict, and Cooperation. Nairobi: Kenya.
  15. ↑ Conca, K., & Wallace, J. (2009). Environment and Peacebuilding in War-torn Societies: Lessons from the UN Environment Programme's Experience with Postconflict Assessment. Global Governance, 15, 4, pp. 185-105.
  16. ↑ Conca (2018-03-05). "Environmental Cooperation and International Peace", Environmental Conflict (in en). Routledge, 225–247. DOI:10.4324/9780429500794-11. ISBN 978-0-429-50079-4. 
  17. ↑ Krampe (2021-08-01). "Sustaining peace through better resource governance: Three potential mechanisms for environmental peacebuilding" (in en). World Development 144: 105508. DOI:10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105508. ISSN 0305-750X. 
  18. ↑ Barquet (September 2014). "Transboundary conservation and militarized interstate disputes". Political Geography 42: 1–11. DOI:10.1016/j.polgeo.2014.05.003. 
  19. ↑ Schoenfeld, Stuart. 2010. "Environment and Human Security in the Eastern Mediterranean: Regional Environmentalism in the Reframing of Palestinian-Israeli-Jordanian Relations" in P. H. Liotta, David Mouat, Judith Lancaster, Bill Kepner and David Smith, eds. Achieving Environmental Security: Ecosystem Services and Human Welfare. Amsterdam: IOS Press.
  20. ↑ Kramer, A. (2008). Regional Water Cooperation and Peacebuilding in the Middle East. Adelphi Research, Initiative For Peace.
  21. ↑ Ide (2020-01-02). "Education and Environmental Peacebuilding: Insights from Three Projects in Israel and Palestine" (in en). Annals of the American Association of Geographers 110 (1): 1–17. DOI:10.1080/24694452.2019.1613954. ISSN 2469-4452. 
  22. ↑ Harari, N., & Roseman, J. (2008). Environmental Peacebuilding Theory and Practice: A Case Study of the Good Water Neighbours Project and In Depth Analysis of the Wadi Fukin / Tzur Hadassah Communities. EcoPeace / Friends of the Earth Middle East.
  23. ↑ Ide (2015-10-13). "Socio-environmental cooperation and conflict? A discursive understanding and its application to the case of Israel and Palestine". Earth System Dynamics 6 (2): 659–671. DOI:10.5194/esd-6-659-2015. ISSN 2190-4987. 
  24. ↑ Djernaes (2015-05-04). "Evaluation of Environmental Peacemaking Intervention Strategies in Jordan-Palestine-Israel". Journal of Peacebuilding & Development 10 (2): 74–80. DOI:10.1080/15423166.2015.1054772. ISSN 1542-3166. 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Reynolds (2017-08-01). "Unpacking the complex nature of cooperative interactions: case studies of Israeli–Palestinian environmental cooperation in the greater Bethlehem area". GeoJournal 82 (4): 701–719. DOI:10.1007/s10708-016-9708-0. ISSN 1572-9893. 
  26. ↑ Roulin (May 2017). "'Nature Knows No Boundaries': The Role of Nature Conservation in Peacebuilding". Trends in Ecology & Evolution 32 (5): 305–310. DOI:10.1016/j.tree.2017.02.018. PMID 28342635. 
  27. ↑ Glausiusz (2018-02-01). "Owls for peace: how conservation science is reaching across borders in the Middle East". Nature 554 (7690): 22–23. DOI:10.1038/d41586-018-01388-5. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 29388974. 
  28. ↑ Peace Parks Foundation. Peace Parks Foundation. Retrieved on 2019-02-19.
  29. ↑ Ramutsindela (January 2017). "Greening Africa's borderlands: The symbiotic politics of land and borders in peace parks". Political Geography 56: 106–113. DOI:10.1016/j.polgeo.2016.11.012. 
  30. ↑ Martin (September 2011). "Understanding the co-existence of conflict and cooperation: Transboundary ecosystem management in the Virunga Massif". Journal of Peace Research 48 (5): 621–635. DOI:10.1177/0022343311412410. ISSN 0022-3433. 
  31. ↑ Bukari (July 2018). "Cooperation and Co-Existence Between Farmers and Herders in the Midst of Violent Farmer-Herder Conflicts in Ghana". African Studies Review 61 (2): 78–102. DOI:10.1017/asr.2017.124. ISSN 0002-0206. 
  32. ↑ Adano (January 2012). "Climate change, violent conflict and local institutions in Kenya's drylands". Journal of Peace Research 49 (1): 65–80. DOI:10.1177/0022343311427344. ISSN 0022-3433. 
  33. ↑ Akçalı (2009-10-30). ""Nature Knows No Boundaries": A Critical Reading of UNDP Environmental Peacemaking in Cyprus". Annals of the Association of American Geographers 99 (5): 940–947. DOI:10.1080/00045600903245938. ISSN 0004-5608. 
  34. ↑ Krampe (June 2017). "Water for peace? Post-conflict water resource management in Kosovo". Cooperation and Conflict 52 (2): 147–165. DOI:10.1177/0010836716652428. ISSN 0010-8367. 
  35. ↑ Young (2015). Livelihoods, natural resources and post-conflict peacebuilding. London: Earthscan. 
  36. ↑ Ide (May 2018). "Does environmental peacemaking between states work? Insights on cooperative environmental agreements and reconciliation in international rivalries". Journal of Peace Research 55 (3): 351–365. DOI:10.1177/0022343317750216. ISSN 0022-3433. 
  37. ↑ Zawahri (2011-03-31). "Using freshwater resources to rehabilitate refugees and build transboundary cooperation". Water International 36 (2): 167–177. DOI:10.1080/02508060.2011.557994. ISSN 0250-8060. 
  38. ↑ Jacobs (December 2002). "The Mekong River Commission: transboundary water resources planning and regional security". The Geographical Journal 168 (4): 354–364. DOI:10.1111/j.0016-7398.2002.00061.x. ISSN 0016-7398. PMID 17494227. 
  39. ↑ Cabada (2018). "Environmental Cooperation as the Instrument of Conflict Transformation in East Asia". Journal of Comparative Politics. 
  40. ↑ Aoki (2011-03-31). "Lessons learned from environmental management of the Iraqi marshlands in the post-conflict period". Water International 36 (2): 197–206. DOI:10.1080/02508060.2011.561770. ISSN 0250-8060. 
  41. ↑ Taher (2012). "Local groundwater governance in Yemen: Building on traditions and enabling communities to craft new rules". Hydrogeology Journal 20 (6): 1177–1188. DOI:10.1007/s10040-012-0863-1. 
  42. ↑ Aggestam (2016-04-15). "Depoliticizing water conflict: functional peacebuilding in the Red Sea–Dead Sea Water Conveyance project" (in en). Hydrological Sciences Journal: 1–11. DOI:10.1080/02626667.2014.999778. ISSN 0262-6667. 
  43. ↑ Krampe (2017-06-01). "Water for peace? Post-conflict water resource management in Kosovo" (in en). Cooperation and Conflict 52 (2): 147–165. DOI:10.1177/0010836716652428. ISSN 0010-8367. 
  44. ↑ Amerom (2005). "Peace parks in Southern Africa: bringers of an African Renaissance?" (in en). The Journal of Modern African Studies 43 (2): 159–182. DOI:10.1017/S0022278X05000790. ISSN 1469-7777. 
  45. ↑ Matthews (2012). "Water grabbing in the Mekong Basin: an analysis of the winners and losers of Thailand's hydropower development in Lao DPR". Water Alternatives 5 (2): 392–411. 
  46. ↑ Maertens (October 2018). "Depoliticisation as a securitising move: the case of the United Nations Environment Programme" (in en). European Journal of International Security 3 (03): 344–363. DOI:10.1017/eis.2018.5. ISSN 2057-5637. 
  47. ↑ Ide (2020). "The dark side of environmental peacebuilding" (in en). World Development 127: 104777. DOI:10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.104777. 
  48. ↑ Krampe (2021-02-18). "Ownership and inequalities: exploring UNEP's Environmental Cooperation for Peacebuilding Program" (in en). Sustainability Science 16 (4): 1159–1172. DOI:10.1007/s11625-021-00926-x. ISSN 1862-4057. 
  49. ↑ Environmental Peacebuilding | MOOC: Environmental Security and Sustaining Peace. environmentalpeacebuilding.org. Retrieved on 2019-02-18.

Njikọ mpụga[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

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