Khoekhoe language

The Khoe language
The Khoe language
Person	Khoe-i
People	Khoekhoen
Language	Khoekhoegowab

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Asụsụ Khoekhoe /ˈkɔɪkɔɪ/ (Khoekhoegowab), nkè á makwaara site ná okwuy agbụrụ Nama (Namagowab) /ˈnɑːmə/, Damara, mà ọ bụ Nama / Damara na n'oge gara aga dị kà Hottentot,[lower-alpha 2] bụ asụsụ kachasị n'asụsụ ndị na-abụghị Bantu nkè Southern Africa nkè na-eji ụdaume click eme ìhè nkè ukwuu mat yá mere á na-ekewa dị kay Khoisan, otú á ghọtara ugbu a dị kà ìhè mgbé ochie.^[1]^[2] Ọ bụ nkè ezinụlọ asụsụ Khoe, á na-asụkwa yá nà Namibia, Botswana, nà South Africa karịsịa site n'agbụrụ atọ: Namakhoen, ːNūkhoen, na Haiːomkhoen.

Ndị Haiom, ndị na-asụ asụsụ Juu, mechara kwaga Khoekhoe. Áhà màkà ndị na-ekwu ókwú, Khoekhoen, sitere na ókwú khoe "onye", ná reduplication ná suffix -n iji gosipụta ọtụtụ n'ozuzu. Georg Friedrich Wreede bụ ónyé Europe mbụ mụrụ asụsụ ahụ, mgbé ọ bịarutere nà São Hui!gaeb (mgbe e mesịrị Cape Town) ná 1659.

Ọnọdụ

Khoekhoe bụ asụsụ mba na Namibia . Na Namibia na South Africa, ụlọ ọrụ mgbasa ozi nkè gọọmentị na-emepụta mà na-agbasa mmemme redio ná Khoekhoegowab.

Á na-eme atụmatụ ná ọ bụ naanị ìhè dị ka mmadụ 167,000 na-asụ asụsụ Khoekhoegowab kà dị n'Africa, nkè na-eme ka ọ bụrụ asụsụ dị n'ihe ize ndụ. N'afọ 2019, Mahadum Cape Town gbara usoro ọmụmụ dị mkpirikpi na-akụzi asụsụ ahụ, ná 21 Septemba 2020 malitere Khoi ná San Center ọhụrụ ya. Á na-eme atụmatụ ná á ga-ewepụta usoro mmụta ná afọ ndị na-abịanụ.^[3]

Asụsụ

Ndị ọkà mmụta nkè oge á na-ahụkarị asụsụ atọ:

NamanasDamara, gụnyere. Sesfontein Damara
Haịụ
Á Ákhoe, n'onwe ya bụ ụyọkọ asụsụ, na etiti n'etiti Haiom na asụsụ Kalahari Khoe

Há dị ichè ichè nkè ná enwere ike iwere ha dị ka asụsụ abụọ ma ọ bụ atọ dị iche iche. [citation needed]

Eini (nke na-adịghịzi adị) dịkwa nso mana a na-agụkarị ya ugbu a dị ka asụsụ dị iche. [citation needed]

Ọmụmụ ụdaolu

Mkpụrụedemede

E nwere àgwà ụdaume ise, nkè á na-ahụ dị k/a/ //i e a o u/ e a o /u// na imi //ĩ ã ũ//. //u// bụ nke gybara gburugburu nkè ukwuu, //o// naanị obere. /a/ bụ naanị ụdaume nwere allophony a ma ama; a na-akpọ ya [ə] tupu /i/ ma ọ bụ /u/.

Ụda

Á kọwaala Nama dị kà nkè nwere ụda atọ ma ọ bụ anọ, /á, ā, à/ ma ọ bụ /a̋, á, à, ː, nke nwere ike ịpụta na mora ọ bụla (mkpụrụedemede na ụdaolu imi ikpeazụ).^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7] Ụda dị elu dị elu mgbe ọ na-apụta na otu n'ime ụdaume dị elu (//í ú//) ma ọ bụ na imi (//ń ḿ//) karịa na ụdaume dị n'etiti ma /é á ó/ dị ala (/é á ó/).^[4]

Ụda ndị ahụ na-agwakọta n'ime ọnụ ọgụgụ dị nta nkeke 'ụda ụda' (ụda okwu), nkè nwere ụdị sandhi ná gburugburu ụfọdụ. Egwú ndị kachasị mkpa, nay ntinye ha na ụdị sandhi bụ ndị a:^[5]

Ihe e dere n'akwụkwọ	Sandhi	Ihe ọ pụtara	Abụ
ǃ̃ˀȍm̀s	ǃ̃ˀòm̏s	na-akụ, na-akụ s.t.	ala ala
ǃ̃ˀȍḿs		udder	ịrị elu dị ala
ǃ̃ˀòm̀s		ịmanye ịpụ n'ọgba	n'etiti
ǃ̃ˀòm̋s	ǃ̃ˀòm̀s	a pollard	ịrị elu dị elu
ǃ̃ˀóm̀s	ǃ̃ˀóm̏s	na-agbaji, na-eme ka [ogwu] dị oké ọnụ ahịa	ala ọdịda
ǃ̃ˀőḿs	ǃ̃ˀóm̀s	aka	ọdịda dị elu

Nchegbu

N'ime ahịrịokwu, okwu okwu okwu na-enweta nrụgide dị ukwuu karịa okwu ụtọ asụsụ. N'ime otu okwu, mkpụrụedemede mbụ na-enweta nrụgide kachasị. Mkpụrụ ókwú ndị na-esote na-enweta obere nrụgide mà na-asụwanye ngwa ngwa.

Mkpụrụ okwu

Nama nwere ụdaume 31: 20 pịa na naanị 11 na-abụghị pịa.

Non-clicks (orthography in italics)

Beach (1938) kọrọ na ndị Khoekhoe nkè oge ahụ nwere velar lateral ejective affricate, [k??], nghọta nkịtị ma ọ bụ allophone nke //kxʼ// n'asụsụ nwere ịpị.^[8] Ụda a anaghịzi apụta ná Khoekhoe mana ọ dị na nwa nwanne yá Korana.

	Akụkụ abụọ	Alveolar	Velar	Ọkụ
Ụgbọ imi	m ⟨m⟩	n ⟨n⟩
Plosive	p ~ β ⟨b/p⟩	t ~ ɾ ⟨t/d/r⟩	k ⟨k/g⟩	ʔ ⟨-⟩
Africate		t͜sʰ ⟨ts⟩	k͜xʰ ⟨kh⟩
Ihe na-esiri ike		s ⟨s⟩	x ⟨x⟩	h ⟨h⟩

N'e/t/iti ụdaume, á na-ak/p/ọ /p/ [β] ná /t/ a na- akpọ [ɾ]. Usoro africate na-achọsi ike, a pụkwara inyocha ya na fonemically dị ka nkwụsị aspirated; na Korana metụtara ha bụ [th, kh].

Ịpị áká

Mkpịsị aka bụ ụdaume abụọ. Pịa ọ bụla nwere otu n'ime isi articulations anọ ma ọ bụ "influxes" nay otu n'etiti ise nkè abụọ articulations mà ọ bụ ""effluxes". Njikọ ahụ na-ebute ụdaume iri abụọ.^[9]

ihe na-eso ya	Mkpịsị aka ndị dị nro		Mkpịsị aka 'dị nkọ'		orthography a haziri ahazi (nke nwere "[[)
ihe na-eso ya	Ihe mgbochi ezé<br id="mwAR0"><br><br><br>	n'akụkụ<br id="mwASA"><br><br><br>	alveolarclicks<br id="mwASM"><br><br><br>	Akpụkpọ ọnụ<br id="mwASY"><br><br><br>	orthography a haziri ahazi (nke nwere "[[)
Tenuis	ᵏǀ	ᵏǁ	ᵏǃ	ᵏǂ	⟨ǃg⟩
Ndị a na-achọ	ᵏǀʰ	ᵏǁʰ	ᵏǃʰ	ᵏǂʰ	⟨ǃkh⟩
Ụgbọ imi	ᵑǀ	ᵑǁ	ᵑǃ	ᵑǂ	⟨ǃn⟩
Akpụkpọ imi na-enweghị ụda	ᵑ̊ǀʰ	ᵑ̊ǁʰ	ᵑ̊ǃʰ	ᵑ̊ǂʰ	⟨ǃh⟩
Akpụkpọ imi na-agbapụta	ᵑ̊ǀˀ	ᵑ̊ǁˀ	ᵑ̊ǃˀ	ᵑ̊ǂˀ	⟨ǃ⟩

Ọchịchọ na mkpọtụ aspirated na-adịkarị mfe mana ọ bụ 'raspier' karịa mkpọtụ imi aspirated, na ụda na-eru nso ch nkè Scottish loch. Mkpịsị aka ndị a na-eme n'olu enweghị olu n'ụzọ doro anya n'ihi njide tupu ntọhapụ, a na-edekwa ha dị ka ụda olu na-enweghị olu na orthography ọdịnala. Akụkụ imi anaghị anụ n'ọnọdụ mbụ; akụkụ imi na-enweghị olu nke mkpọtụ aspirated na-esikwa ike ịnụ mgbe ọ na-anọghị n'etiti ụdaume, yabụ na ntị ndị mba ọzọ, ọ nwere ike ịdị ka ụdị dị ogologo mà ọ bụ obere mkpọtụ nkè mkpọtụ contour.

Tindall na-ekwu ná ndị na-amụ ìhè ná Europe na-akpọkarị mkpọtụ n'akụkụ site ná itinye ire na ezé n'akụkụ nakwa nya nkwekọrịta a " siri ike mà bụrụ nke na-abụghị nke ntị". Kama nke ahụ, ndị Namaqua ji ire kpuchie ọnụ ha niile mà mepụta ụda "dị anya azụ n'ọnụ dị ka o kwere mee".^[10]

Phonotactics

Okwu mgbọrọgwụ okwyu nwere abụọ mà ọ bụ na-adịkarịghị atọ, n'ụdị CVCV(C), CVV(C), ma ọ bụ CVN(C). (A chọrọ ụdaume mbụ.) Mkpụrụ okwu dị n'etiti nwere ike ịbụ naanị w r m n (w bụ b~p na r bụ d~t), ebe ụdaume ikpeazụ (C) nwere ike ịbụ nanị p, s, ts. Mora ọ bụla na-ebu ụda, mana nkè abụọ nwere ike ịbụ naanị elu ma ọ bụ nke dị n'etiti, maka ụda isii "melodies": HH, MH, LH, HM, MM, LM.

Usoro ụdaume ọnụ na CVV bụ //ii ee aa oo uu ai [əi] ae ao au [əu] oa oe ui/ aa oo uu ai [əi] ae ao au [əu] oa oe ui/. N'ihi mbelata nke ọnụ ọgụgụ nke ụdaume imi, usoro imi bụ / . A na-akpọ usoro ndị na-agwụ na ụdaume dị elu (/ii uu ai au ui ĩĩ__wol____wol____wol__) ngwa ngwa karịa ndị ọzọ (//ee aa oo ae ao oa oe ãã õã/ oa oe ãã õã/), dị ka diphthongs na ụdaume ogologo karịa ka usoro ụdaume na hiatus. A na-aghọta ụda dị ka contours. Okwu CVCV na-enwekarị otu usoro ụdaume ahụ, ọ bụ ezie na enwere ọtụtụ ndị ọzọ. Ụda abụọ ahụ dịkwa iche iche.

A na-ejedebe usoro ụdaume-nasal na ụdaume ndị na-abụghị n'ihu: //am an om on um un//. Á na-ahụkwa ụda há dị kà contours.

Orthography

E nweela ọtụtụ orthographies eji maka Nama. Akwụkwọ ọkọwa okwuy Khoekhoegowab (Haacke 2000) na-eji ọkọlọtọ nke oge a.

Ná orthography ọkọlọtọ, a na-eji ụdaume b d g maka okwu nwere otu n'ime ụda olu dị ala na p t k maka otu n'etiti ụda olu dị elu. YA na-eji W eme ìhè naanị n'etiti ụdaume, ọ bụ ezie na enwere ike iji b ma ọ bụ p dochie ya dịka ụda olu si dị. A na-ahapụkarị akara ụda olu n'ihu.

Orthography	Nkọwa	Abụ	Ihe ọ pụtara
gao	/kȁó/	ịrị elu dị ala	'iwu'
Obi dị ya	/kàő/	ịrị elu dị elu	'na-enwe mgbagwoju anya'
Sụbu (ma ọ bụ Sụbu)	/ǀʰȕwú/	ịrị elu dị ala	'ịkwụsị imerụ ahụ'
Shiapu (ma ọ bụ Shia)	/ǀʰùwű/	ịrị elu dị elu	'iji pụọ na ume'

Á na-eji circumflex dee ụdaume imi. Mkpụrụedemede imi niile dị ogologo, dịka na hû //hũ̀ṹ/ Occ / 'isii'. A na-eji macron dee ụdaume ogologo (abụọ), dịka na ā //ʔàa̋// 'ịkwa ákwá, ịkwa ákwá'; ndị a mejupụtara moras abụọ (otu abụọ na-ebu ụda).

A naghị ede nkwụsị glottal na mbido okwu (ebe a na-ahụ ya anya), mana a na-ede ya na hyphen na okwu ndị dị mgbagwoju anya, dị ka gao-aob / kʹòʔò Espagnep / 'onye isi'.

A na-ede clicks site na iji akara IPA:

Shia (n'ụzọ kwụ ọtọ) maka ịpị ezé
Á (ogwe aka abụọ kwụ ọtọ) maka ịpị n'akụkụ
Akara mkpu maka ịpị alveolar
Á (mpu abụọ) maka ịpị ọnụ

Mgbe ụfọdụ, a na-eji ihe odide ndị ọzọ dochie anya, dịka hash (#) n'ọnọdụ nke o.^[11]

Asụsụ

Nama nwere usoro okwu isiokwu, klas aha atọ (nwoke / gu-class, nwanyị / di-class na na-enweghị / n-class) na ọnụọgụ ụtọ asụsụ atọ (otu, abụọ ná ọtụtụ). Á na-eji encilitics áhà iji gosi onye, okike, ná nọmba ná ahịrịokwu aha.

	Otu	Abụọ	Ọtụtụ	Nkọwa
Ụmụ nwanyị/Di-class	Piris	Mmasị	Piridi	ewu
Ụmụ nwoke/Ụmụ nwoke	Arib	Arikha	Arigu	nkịta
Na-anọpụ iche/N-class	Khoe-i	Khoera	Khoen	ndị mmadụ

Ónyé, okike na akara nọmba

Ihe ịrịba ama PGN (nọmba nwoke na nwanyị) bụ nnọchiaha enclitic nke na-ejikọta na ahịrịokwu aha.^[12] Ihe ịrịba ama PGN na-eme ka onye mbụ, nkè abụọ, na nke atọ, nwoke, nwanyị, na nwoke ná nwanyị, ná otu, abụọ, na ọnụọgụ. Enwere ike kewaa akara PGN n'ime ìhè atụ, ihe, ná oblique.

Áhà

	Ụmụ nwoke			Ụmụ nwanyị			Onye na-anọpụ iche
Onye	1	2	3	1	2	3	1	2	3
Otu	ta	ts	b/mi/ni	ta	s	s	Ọdịdị	Ọdịdị	-i
Abụọ	khom	kho	kha	m	ro	ra	m	ro	ra
Ọtụtụ	ge	gaa	gu	se	ya mere	di di	da	du	n

Isiokwu

Khoekhoe nwere isiokwu anọ doro anya: ti, si, sa, 意.^[12] Enwere ike ijikọta isiokwu ndị a doro anya na akara PGN.

Ìhè atụ sitere na Haacke (2013):

si-khom "anyị abụọ ụmụ nwoke" (onye ọzọ na-abụghị onye na-edetara m)
sa-khom "anyị ụmụ nwoke abụọ" (onye adreesị na m)
"anyị ụmụ nwoke abụọ" (onye ọzọ a kpọtụrụ aha n'oge gara aga na m)

gị	ọ bụrụ na	ya	Ọdịdị
+ doro anya	+ doro anya	+ doro anya	+ doro anya
+ ọkà okwu	+ ọkà okwu	+ adreesị	+kwurịta okwu
+mmadụ	-onye e dere ede	+mmadụ
+otu n'otu	+mmadụ
	-nke pụrụ iche

Isi okwu

E nwere akara ahịrịokwu atọ, ge (nkwupụta), kha (ajụjụ), na ko / km (nkwado). Ihe ịrịba ama ndị a na-apụta na ahịrịokwu matrix, ma na-appụta mgbe isiokwu ahụ gasịrị.^[13]

Ìhè odide ihe atụ

Ihe na-esonụ bụ ederede ihe atụ n'asụsụ Khoekhoe.^[14]

N'ihi ya, ọ bụ n'ihi ya ka a na-akpọ ya: "A na-akpọsa ya: "А na-akpọ" "A na na-akpọpa ya: "À na-akpọba ya: "Á na-akpọwa ya: "ئ"A na-agụsa ya:

N'ógbè a, anyị na-ahụ springbuck, oryx, na duiker; francolin, guinea fowl, bustard, na ostrich; yana ụdị agwọ dị iche iche.

Okwu na ahịrịokwu ndị a na-ahụkarị

Ezigbo ụbọchị
Ezigbo ụtụtụ
Ezigbo mgbede
Matisa Olee otú ị dị?
Shia Shia SHA Shia Shiya
A na-ahụ gị n'oge na-adịghị anya
Regkomtani - Aga m arụ ọrụ
Tae na Tae - Olee otú ọ na-anọdụ (ntụgharị kpọmkwem "Gịnị bụ ihe")

Akwụkwọ

[Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji]
[Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] Phonetics nke Asụsụ Hottentot. Cambridge: Heffer.
[Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] Akụkụ, ụda na nkesa na Khoekhoe Prosody. PhD Thesis, Mahadum Cornell.
[Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] A Nama Grammar: Okwu aha. Akwụkwọ edemede MA. Cape Town: Mahadum nke Cape Town.
[Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] "Ihe a na-akpọ "Nkwupụta Onwe Onye" na Nama. Na Traill, Anthony, ed., Khoisan Linguistic Studies 3, 43ʹ62. Nkwurịta okwu 6. Johannesburg: African Studies Institute, Mahadum nke Witwatersrand.
[Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] Ntinye isiokwu na Nama. Akwụkwọ edemede MA. Colchester, UK: Mahadum nke Essex.
[Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] "Okwu Nkọwa Nkọwa na Nama". Na Gowlett, Derek F., de., African Linguistic Contributions (Festschrift Ernst Westphal), 189X194. Pretoria: Via Afrika.
[Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] "Dislocated Noun Phrases in Khoekhoe (Nama/Damara): Ihe akaebe ọzọ maka Sentential Hypothesis". Afrikanistische Arbeitspapiere, 29, 149162.
[Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] "Ihe ndị a na-ahụ maka njikọta na mgbagwoju anya na Khoekhoegowab (Nama/Damara) N'ime Anthony Traill, Rainer Vossen na Marguerite Anne Megan Biesele, eds., The Complete Linguist: Papers in Memory of Patrick J. Dickens", 339ş361. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag.
[Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] "Mmekọrịta dị n'ime na n'èzí nke asụsụ Khoekhoe: Nnyocha Mbido". N'ime Wilfrid Haacke & Edward D. Elderkin, eds., asụsụ Namibian: Reports and Papers, 125209. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag maka Mahadum nke Namibia.
[Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] The Tonology nke Khoekhoe (Nama/Damara). Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung/Nnyocha na Khoisan Studies, Bd 16. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag.
[Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] A Khoekhoegowab Dictionary na English-Khoekhoegowab Index. Windhoek : Gamsberg Macmillan. ISBN 99916-0-401-4
[Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] Grammar Nama Hottentot. Asụsụ Sayensị Monographs, v 15. Bloomington: Mahadum Indiana.
[Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] Wortschatz der Khoi-Khoin (Namaqua-Hottentotten). Berlin : Deutsche Kolonialgesellschaft.
[Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] Nama-grammatika. Windhoek : Inboorlingtaalburo van die Departement van Bantoe-onderwys.
[Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] Praktische Namagrammatik. Cape Town : Balkema.
[Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] Asụsụ Khoesan. Oxon: Routledge.

Edensibia

↑ Laurie Bauer, 2007, The Linguistics Student's Handbook, Edinburgh
↑ Khoekhoe languages (en). Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved on 2020-03-15.
↑ Swingler (23 September 2020). UCT launches milestone Khoi and San Centre. UCT News. University of Cape Town. Retrieved on 4 January 2021.
↑ ^4.0 ^4.1 Hagman (1977)
↑ ^5.0 ^5.1 Haacke & Eiseb (2002)
↑ Haacke 1999
↑ Brugman 2009
↑ D. Beach, 1938. The Phonetics of the Hottentot Language. Cambridge.
↑ Nama. www.phonetics.ucla.edu. Retrieved on 18 October 2020.
↑ Tindal (1858) A grammar and vocabulary of the Namaqua-Hottentot language
↑ Namibian town's plan to change name to !Nami#nus sparks linguistic debate. thestar.com (February 26, 2015).
↑ ^12.0 ^12.1 Haacke (2013). "3.2.1 Namibian Khoekhoe (Nama/Damara)", in Vossen: The Khoesan Languages. Routledge, 141–151. ISBN 978-0-7007-1289-2.
↑ Hahn, Michael. 2013. Word Order Variation in Khoekhoe. In Mu ̈ller, Stefan (Ed.), Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Head-Driven Phrase Struc- ture Grammar, Freie Universita ̈t Berlin, 48–68. Stanford, CA: CSLI Publications.
↑ Khoekhoegowab: 3ǁî xoaigaub. Gamsberg Macmillan, 2003

[1] Laurie Bauer, 2007, The Linguistics Student's Handbook, Edinburgh

[britannica-2] Khoekhoe languages (en). Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved on 2020-03-15.

[3] Swingler (23 September 2020). UCT launches milestone Khoi and San Centre. UCT News. University of Cape Town. Retrieved on 4 January 2021.

[H-4] 4.0 ^4.1 Hagman (1977)

[H&E-5] 5.0 ^5.1 Haacke & Eiseb (2002)

[6] Haacke 1999

[7] Brugman 2009

[8] D. Beach, 1938. The Phonetics of the Hottentot Language. Cambridge.

[9] Nama. www.phonetics.ucla.edu. Retrieved on 18 October 2020.

[10] Tindal (1858) A grammar and vocabulary of the Namaqua-Hottentot language

[11] Namibian town's plan to change name to !Nami#nus sparks linguistic debate. thestar.com (February 26, 2015).

[The_Khoesan_Languages-12] 12.0 ^12.1 Haacke (2013). "3.2.1 Namibian Khoekhoe (Nama/Damara)", in Vossen: The Khoesan Languages. Routledge, 141–151. ISBN 978-0-7007-1289-2.

[13] Hahn, Michael. 2013. Word Order Variation in Khoekhoe. In Mu ̈ller, Stefan (Ed.), Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Head-Driven Phrase Struc- ture Grammar, Freie Universita ̈t Berlin, 48–68. Stanford, CA: CSLI Publications.

[14] Khoekhoegowab: 3ǁî xoaigaub. Gamsberg Macmillan, 2003

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