Jump to content

Nne ọkụkọ

Dezie njikọ ndi a
Shí Wikipedia, njikotá édémédé nke onyobulạ

 

Nne ọkụkọ

ọkụkọ ( Gallus domesticus ) bụ nnukwu nnụnụ nwere nku dị mkpụmkpụ, nke sitere na anụ ọhịa na-acha uhie uhie nke Ndịda Ebe Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Eshia ihe dị ka afọ 8,000 gara aga. A na-azụ ọtụtụ ọkụkọ maka nri, na-enye anụ na akwa; A na-edobe ndị ọzọ dị ka anụ ụlọ ma ọ bụ maka ọgụ ọkụ.

Ọkụkọ bụ anụ ụlọ nkịtị na nke zuru ebe niile, yana ọnụ ọgụgụ ndị mmadụ ruru ijeri 23.7 dị ka nke 2018, yana mmepụta ihe karịrị ijeri 50 kwa afọ. Otu ọkụkọ a na-amụ maka ịtọgbọ nwere ike ịmị ihe karịrị akwa 300 kwa afọ. Enwere ọtụtụ ntụaka omenala maka ọkụkọ n'akụkọ ọdịnala, okpukperechi na akwụkwọ.

Nomenclature

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Okwu maka ọkụkọ gụnyere:

  • Biddy: ọkụkọ, ma ọ bụ ọkụkọ a mụrụ ọhụrụ[1][2]
  • Capon: ọkụkọ nwoke a na-akpụ akpụ ma ọ bụ nke a na-akwapụ akpụ [lower-alpha 1]
  • Chick: Nwa ọkụkọ[3]
  • Chook /tʃʊk/: ọkụkọ (Australia/New Zealand, nke a na-amaghị ama) [4]
  • Nkịta ọhịa: ọkụkọ toro eto nke na-amị mkpụrụ [5][6]
  • Nkịta ọhịa: obere ọkụkọ
  • Hen: ọkụkọ nwanyị toro eto [7]
  • Pullet: nwa ọkụkọ nwanyị na-erubeghị otu afọ. N'ụlọ ọrụ ọkụkọ, pullet bụ ọkụkọ na-eto eto na-erughị izu 22.[8]
  • Nkịta ọkụkọ: ọkụkọ nwoke na-amị mkpụrụ, ọkachasị na North America. Ọ malitere na narị afọ nke iri na asatọ, ma eleghị anya dị ka okwu euphemism iji zere ihe gbasara mmekọahụ nke okwu cock.[9]
  • Yardbird: ọkụkọ (n'ebe ndịda United States, dialectal) [10]

Chicken nwere ike ịpụta ọkụkọ, dị ka ọ dị na egwuregwu William Shakespeare nke Macbeth, ebe Macduff na-akwa arịrị maka ọnwụ nke "ọkụkọ m niile mara mma na mmiri mmiri ha".[15] A na-echekwa ojiji a n'aha ebe dị ka Hen na Chicken Islands.[16] N'ebe ochie, ma ka na-emekarị ahịa na nkà mmụta sayensị, a na-akọwa ọkụkọ dị ka ụdị dị ka anụ ufe nkịtị ma ọ bụ anụ ụlọ.[11]

Nkọwa

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

  Chickens bụ nnụnụ buru ibu, na-arụ ọrụ kwa ụbọchị. Ahụ dị okirikiri, ụkwụ enweghị nku n'ọtụtụ ụdị, na nku dị mkpụmkpụ.[18] Nnụnụ ọhịa nwere ike ife; ọkụkọ na akwara ụgbọ elu ha dị arọ nke ukwuu nke na ha agaghị efe efe karịa obere oge.[19] Nha na agba dị iche iche n'etiti udiri anumanu.[18] Ụmụ ọkụkọ ndị toro eto nke ma nwoke ma nwanyị nwere anụ ahụ n'isi ha nke a na-akpọ mbo ma ọ bụ cockcomb, na kpọgidere akpụkpọ anụ n'akụkụ abụọ n'okpuru ọnụ ọnụ ha a na-akpọ wattles; combs na wattles na-ewu ewu karịa ụmụ nwoke. Ufodu udiri udiri nwere ngbanwe nke na-ebute feathering ozo n'okpuru ihu, na-eme ka ajị agba di.

Ọkụkọ bụ anụ ọhịa.[21] N'ime ọhịa, ha na-akpụcha ala ka ha chọọ mkpụrụ, ụmụ ahụhụ, na anụmanụ ndị buru ibu dị ka ngwere, obere agwọ, [22] na ụmụ oke.[23]. Otu ọkụkọ nwere ike ịdị ndụ ruo afọ 5 ruo 10, dabere n'ụdị ya.[24] Ọkụkọ kacha ochie n'ụwa biri afọ iri na isii.[12]

Ọkụkọ na-ebu ibu, na-ebi n'ìgwè ewu na atụrụ, na-amụba àkwá ma na-azụ ụmụ. Ọkụkọ ndị mmadụ n'otu n'otu na-achị ndị ọzọ, na-eme ka usoro pecking; ndị na-achị achị na-ebute ụzọ maka ịnweta nri na ebe akwụ akwụ. Thorleif Schjelderup-Ebbe kọwara echiche nke ịchịisi, gụnyere pecking, n'ime ọkụkọ ụmụ nwanyị na 1921 dị ka "usoro n'usoro".[26][27] Ụmụ ọkụkọ ndị nwoke na-amali ma na-eji aka ha na-alụ ọgụ.[28] Ọkụkọ na-enwe ike ịkpa nkata ma gbuo onye na-eri anụ na-adịghị ike ma ọ bụ nke na-enweghị ahụmahụ, dị ka nwa nkịta ọhịa.[13]

Igwe (nke nwere ụda)

Mkpu nwoke bụ mkpu na-ada ụda ma na-eme mgbe ụfọdụ, na-eje ozi dị ka ihe mgbaàmà ala nye ụmụ nwoke ndị ọzọ, na nzaghachi maka nsogbu mberede n'ime gburugburu ha.[14] Hens na-eti mkpu n'olu dara ụda mgbe ha nwụsịrị àkwá ma kpọọ ụmụ ha. Ụmụ ọkụkọ na-akpọ oku ịdọ aka ná ntị dị iche iche iji gosi na anụ na-eri ibe ya na-abịa site na ikuku ma ọ bụ n'ala.[15]

Ịmụ nwa na ndụ

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Iji malite ịkpa oke, ụfọdụ ọkụkọ nwere ike ịgba egwú gburugburu ma ọ bụ n'akụkụ ọkụkọ (agba egwú gburugburu), na-emekarị ka nku nke dị nso na ọkụkọ.[16] Egwú ahụ na-akpali nzaghachi n'ime ọkụkọ ahụ ma mgbe ọ zaghachiri oku ya, ọkụkọ ahụ nwere ike ịba n'elu ọkụkọ ahụ ma gaa n'ihu na mmekọrịta ahụ.[16] Mmekọrịta na-agụnyekarị usoro nke nwoke na-abịaru nwanyị nso ma na-eme ihe ngosi waltzing. Ọ bụrụ na nwanyị ahụ anaghị anabata ya, ọ na-agba ọsọ; ma ọ bụghị ya, ọ ga-ehulata, nwoke ahụ na-arịgo, na-aga ije na ụkwụ abụọ n'azụ ya. Mgbe ha nwesịrị mmekọahụ, nke oké na-eme ngosipụta nke ọdụ.[17]

Mbufe nke sperm na-eme site na njikọ cloacal n'etiti nwoke na nwanyị, n'omume a na-akpọ 'cloacal kiss'.[18] Dị ka nnụnụ niile, usoro neuroendocrine, Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone-I neurons na hypothalamus na-achịkwa ọmụmụ. Hormone ọmụmụ gụnyere Estrogen, progesterone, na gonadotropins (hormone luteinizing na hormone follicle-stimulating) na-amalite ma na-eme ka mgbanwe ntozu oke mmekọahụ. Mmụba na-ebelata na afọ, a na-eche na ọ bụ n'ihi mbelata GnRH-I-N.[19]

Ụmụ ọkụkọ a mụrụ ọhụrụ

Hens na-agbalịkarị itinye àkwá ndị nwere àkwá ma na-ebugharị àkwá site na akwụ́ ndị gbara ya gburugburu n'ime nke ha. Ìgwè atụrụ na-eji naanị ebe ole na ole a na-ahọrọ, karịa inwe akwụ́ dị iche maka nnụnụ ọ bụla.[20] N'okpuru ọnọdụ okike, ọtụtụ nnụnụ na-eyi naanị ruo mgbe a ga-enwe àkwá zuru ezu; mgbe ahụ, ha na-ekpuchi àkwá niile. A na-akpọ nke a "going broody". Nnụnụ ahụ na-anọdụ n'akwụ́ ya, na-efegharị ma ọ bụ na-eme ka ọ na-echebe ya ma ọ bụrụ na a na-enye ya nsogbu. Ọ naghị ahapụ akwụ́ ya ruo mgbe àkwá ya pụtara.[21]

Àkwá nke ọkụkọ sitere na mpaghara dị elu nke Tibet nwere mgbanwe anụ ahụ pụrụ iche nke na-eme ka ọnụ ọgụgụ dị elu nke na-apụta na gburugburu ebe ikuku oxygen dị ala. Mgbe a na-etinye àkwá n'ime ebe hypoxic, ụmụ ọkụkọ si n'ìgwè ndị a na-egosipụta Hemoglobin karịa ụmụ ọkụkọ sitere n'ìhè ọkụkọ ndị ọzọ. Hemoglobin a nwere njikọ ka ukwuu na oxygen, na-ejikọta oxygen ngwa ngwa.[22]

Àkwá ọkụkọ na-amị mkpụrụ na-apụta na njedebe nke oge nku, ihe dị ka ụbọchị 21; ọkụkọ na'ime ezé ya na-apụpụ na mkpokoro ahụ.[16] Hens na-anọ n'akwụ́ ruo ihe dị ka ụbọchị abụọ mgbe nwa ọkụkọ mbụ pụtara; n'oge a, ụmụ ọkụkọ ọhụrụ a mụrụ ọhụrụ na-eri nri site na ịmịkọrọ akpa yolk dị n'ime.[23] Nnụnụ ahụ na-echebe ụmụ ya ma na-amụ ha iji mee ka ha na-ekpo ọkụ. Ọ na-eduga ha na nri na mmiri ma kpọọ ha maka nri. Ụmụ ọkụkọ na-etinye akara na ọkụkọ ahụ ma mesịa soro ya mgbe niile. Ọ na-aga n'ihu na-elekọta ha ruo mgbe ha gbara ọtụtụ izu.[24]

Inbreeding nke ọkụkọ White Leghorn na-akpatakarị ịda mbà n'obi nke na-egosipụta dị ka mbelata ọnụ ọgụgụ àkwá na igbu oge ntozu mmekọahụ.[25] Ụmụ ọkụkọ Langshan siri ike na-egosipụta ịda mbà n'obi doro anya na ọmụmụ, ọkachasị maka àgwà ndị dị ka afọ mgbe a na-eyi àkwá mbụ na ọnụ ọgụgụ àkwá.[26]

Mmalite

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Ọdịdị

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]
Red junglefowl, nna ochie ọhịa nke ọkụkọ

Mmiri ma ọ bụ nnụnụ bi n'ala yiri partridges nke oge a, na Galliforms, usoro nnụnụ nke ọkụkọ nọ na ya, lanarịrị Ihe omume mkpochapụ nke Cretaceous-Paleogene nke gburu nnụnụ niile bi n'osisi na ndị iwu ha dinosaur.[27] Ụmụ ọkụkọ sitere na red junglefowl (Gallus gallus) ma na-ekewapụta ya na sayensị dị ka otu ụdị.[28] Ụmụ ọkụkọ a na-azụ n'ụlọ na-agwakọta n'efu na ọnụ ọgụgụ nke red junglefowl.[28] Nne ọkụkọ a na-azụ n'ụlọ na-agwakọta na Nnụnụ ọhịa na-acha ntụ ntụ, nnụnụ junglefowl nke Sri Lanka na nnụisi junglefoull na-acha akwụkwọ ndụ akwụkwọ ndụ; a na-etinye mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa maka akpụkpọ anụ na-acha odo odo, dịka ọmụmaatụ, n'ime nnụnụ ụlọ site na nnụkọ ọhịa na-adịghị mma (G. sonneratii). [29][30] A na-eme atụmatụ na ọkụkọ na-ekerịta n'etiti 71 na 79% nke mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa ha na red junglefowl.[29]

Ịzụ n'ụlọ

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

  Ezigbo mgbe na ebe a zụlitere ọkụkọ ahụ ka na-ese okwu. Nnyocha genomic na-eme atụmatụ na a zụlitere ọkụkọ ahụ afọ 8,000 gara aga na Ndịda Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Eshia ma gbasaa na China na India afọ 2,000 ruo 3,000 ka e mesịrị.[29] Ihe akaebe e gwupụtara n'ala na-akwado ọkụkọ ụlọ na Ndịda Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Eshia tupu 6000 BC, China site na 6000 BC na India site na 2000 BC.[29][31][32]    Nnyocha okike dị ịrịba ama nke 2020 nke kwadoro ọkụkọ 863 n'ofe ụwa na-atụ aro na ọkụkọ niile sitere na otu ihe omume obibi nke red junglefowl nke nkesa ya ugbu a bụ na ndịda ọdịda anyanwụ China, n'ebe ugwu Thailand na Myanmar. Ụmụ ọkụkọ ndị a a na-azụ n'ụlọ gbasara n'ebe ndịda ọwụwa anyanwụ na ndịda Eshia ebe ha na ụdị anụ ọhịa ọhịa dị iche iche na-emekọrịta ihe, na-emepụta ụdị mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa na mpaghara dị iche iche. Nnyocha nke ụdị azụmahịa kachasị ewu ewu na-egosi na ụdị White Leghorn nwere ụdị nna dị iche iche e ketara site na ụdị nke red junglefowl.[33][34][35]

Mgbasawanye

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Austronesia

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]
Mmalite nke ọkụkọ a zụlitere n'ụlọ n'ime Oceania site na Philippines site na mgbasawanye Neolithic Austronesian (malite na c. 4000 BP), nke sitere na akara mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa na DNA ọkụkọ oge ochie na nke oge a (Thomson et al., 2014) [36]

Okwu maka ọkụkọ ụlọ (*manuk) bụ akụkụ nke Asụsụ Proto-Austronesian e wughachiri, na-egosi na Ndị Austronesian zụlitere ha kemgbe oge ochie. A na-eburu ọkụkọ, tinyere nkịta na ezì, n'ebe niile nke njem ụgbọ mmiri Austronesian na-aga Island Southeast Asia, Micronesia, Island Melanesia, Polynesia, na Madagascar, malite na ọ dịkarịa ala 3000 BC site na Taiwan.[36][37][38][39]  Enwere ike iwebata ọkụkọ ndị a n'oge Tupu oge Columbus na South America site n'aka ndị ọrụ ụgbọ mmiri Polynesia, mana ihe akaebe maka nke a ka bụ ihe a na-ekwu.[40]

Ikekwe na ọkụkọ ụlọ nọ na Amerịka tupu njikọ ọdịda anyanwụ bụ nke ndị nchọpụta na-arụrịta ụka, mana ọkụkọ na-acha anụnụ anụnụ, nke a na-ahụ naanị na Amerịka na Eshia, na-atụ aro mmalite Eshia maka ọkụkọ America mbụ. Enweghị data sitere na Thailand, Russia, mpaghara India, Ndịda Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Eshia na mpaghara Sahara Africa na-eme ka o sie ike ịdepụta map doro anya nke mgbasa nke ọkụkọ n'ógbè ndị a; nkọwa ka mma na nyocha mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa nke ụdị ndị dị n'ọ́ ebe a na-eyi egwu site na mkpochapụ nwekwara ike inye aka na nyocha n'óbe a.[41] Ọkpụkpụ ọkụkọ sitere na Arauco Peninsula nke dị na ndịda etiti Chile bụ radiocarbon nke e dere dị ka pre-Columbian, nyocha DNA na-atụ aro na ha nwere njikọ na ndị bi na Polynesia.[42][43] Otú ọ dị, nyocha ọzọ nke otu ọkpụkpụ ahụ mere ka a nwee obi abụọ na nchọpụta ndị ahụ.[44][45]

Eurasia

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Ọ na-esiri ike ịchọta ụbọchị ọkpụkpụ ọkụkọ, n'ihi obere ọkpụkpụ nnụnụ na-emebi emebi; nke a nwere ike ịkọwa ọdịiche dị na ụbọchị ndị sitere na isi mmalite dị iche iche nyere. A na-agbakwunye ihe akaebe ihe mgbe ochie site na ịkpọ aha n'ihe odide akụkọ ihe mere eme site na narị afọ ole na ole gara aga BC, yana ihe ngosi na ọrụ nka prehistoric, dịka gafee Central Asia.[46] Ụmụ ọkụkọ gbasara n'ebe ndịda Central Asia site na narị afọ nke anọ BC.[46]

Ihe fọdụrụ n'anụ ọkụkọ nke Middle East laghachiri na obere oge tupu afọ 2000 BC na Siria.[41]  Ndị Finishia gbasara ọkụkọ n'ụsọ oké osimiri Mediterenian ruo Iberia. N'oge Hellenistic (narị afọ nke anọ na nke abụọ BC), na ndịda Levant, a malitere ịzụlite ọkụkọ n'ọtụtụ ebe maka nri.[47] A na-ahụ foto mbụ nke ọkụkọ na Europe na ite Ndị Kọrịnt nke narị afọ nke asaa BC.[48][49]

Ịzụlite mụbara n'okpuru Alaeze Ukwu Rom ma belata na Middle Ages.[41] Nchịkọta mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa nke ọkpụkpụ ọkụkọ site na ebe ndị e gwupụtara ihe na Europe kpughere na n'oge ndị dị elu, ọkụkọ ghọrọ ndị na-adịghị eme ihe ike ma malite itinye àkwá n'oge mmalite oge ọmụmụ.[50]

Afrịka

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Ụmụ ọkụkọ rutere Ijipt site na Middle East maka ebumnuche nke ịlụ ọgụ ọkụkọ n'ihe dị ka 1400 BC ma bụrụ ndị a zụlitere n'ọtụtụ ebe n'Ijipt n'ihe dịka 300 BC.[41]   Ụzọ atọ nwere ike isi banye n'Africa n'ihe dị ka puku afọ mbụ AD nwere ike ịbụ site na Ndagwurugwu Naịl nke Ijipt, ahịa Roman-Grik ma ọ bụ India nke Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Afrịka, ma ọ bụ site na Carthage na ndị Berber, gafee Sahara. Ihe ncheta ndị mbụ a maara sitere na Mali, Nubia, East Coast, na South Africa ma laghachi azụ n'etiti puku afọ mbụ AD.[41]

Ọrịa

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]
Nwa nnụnụ dị ụbọchị 8 na-arịa influenza nnụnụ

Ụmụ ọkụkọ nwere ike ibute nje dịka ụmụ ahụhụụmụ ahụhụ ndị pathogens dịka nje bacteria na Nje virus kpatara. Nje Dermanyssus gallinae na-eri ọbara, na-akpata iwe ma na-ebelata mmepụta àkwá, ma na-arụ ọrụ dị ka ihe na-ebute ọrịa nje dịka Salmonellosis na spirochaetosis.[51]Ọrịa nje na-agụnye influenza nnụnụ.[52]

  1. ↑ Definition of biddy. Dictionary.com. Archived from the original on May 7, 2021. Retrieved on May 7, 2021.
  2. ↑ Biddy definition and meaning. Collins English Dictionary. Archived from the original on May 7, 2021. Retrieved on May 7, 2021.
  3. ↑ Chick. Cambridge Dictionary. Archived from the original on September 7, 2015.
  4. ↑ Chook. Cambridge Dictionary. Archived from the original on September 7, 2015. Retrieved on March 4, 2021.
  5. ↑ Cock. Cambridge Dictionary. Archived from the original on September 7, 2015. Retrieved on March 4, 2021.
  6. ↑ Hen. Cambridge Dictionary. Archived from the original on September 7, 2015. Retrieved on March 4, 2021.
  7. ↑ Hen noun. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved on 2 February 2024.
  8. ↑ Overview of the Poultry Industry. Missouri Department of Elementary and Secondary Education. Archived from the original on October 23, 2020.
  9. ↑ Definition of Rooster. Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on April 22, 2021. Retrieved on March 6, 2021.
  10. ↑ Berhardt (1986). I Remember: Eighty Years of Black Entertainment, Big Bands. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-8018-0. OCLC 12805260. 
  11. ↑ Stevens (1991). Genetics and evolution of the domestic fowl. Cambridge University Press, 11 and throughout. 
  12. ↑ Smith (August 6, 2006). World's oldest chicken starred in magic shows, was on 'Tonight Show'. Tuscaloosa News. Archived from the original on February 20, 2019. Retrieved on May 18, 2020.
  13. ↑ AFP (March 12, 2019). Chickens 'teamed up to kill fox' at Brittany farming school. Theguardian.com. Archived from the original on March 13, 2019. Retrieved on March 13, 2019.
  14. ↑ "Top cock: Roosters crow in pecking order", Phys.org. Retrieved on January 14, 2018.
  15. ↑ Evans (July 1993). "On the meaning of alarm calls: functional reference in an avian vocal system". Animal Behaviour 46 (1): 23–38. DOI:10.1006/anbe.1993.1158. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Grandin (2005). Animals in Translation. New York City: Scribner's, 69–71. ISBN 978-0-7432-4769-6. 
  17. ↑ Cheng (August 1988). "Dominance Relationship and Mating Behavior of Domestic Cocks: A Model to Study Mate-Guarding and Sperm Competition in Birds". The Condor 90 (3): 697–704. DOI:10.2307/1368360. 
  18. ↑ Briskie (1997). "Sexual Selection and the Intromittent Organ of Birds". Journal of Avian Biology 28 (1): 73–86. DOI:10.2307/3677097. 
  19. ↑ Bain (May 3, 2016). "Increasing persistency in lay and stabilising egg quality in longer laying cycles. What are the challenges?". British Poultry Science 57 (3): 330–338. DOI:10.1080/00071668.2016.1161727. PMID 26982003. 
  20. ↑ Sherwin (1993). "Factors influencing floor-laying by hens in modified cages". Applied Animal Behaviour Science 36 (2–3): 211–222. DOI:10.1016/0168-1591(93)90011-d. 
  21. ↑ Why Do Chickens Puff up Their Feathers? I 4 Reasons Explained (August 8, 2020). Archived from the original on June 18, 2021. Retrieved on June 16, 2021.
  22. ↑ Zhang (October 2008). "Influences of Hypoxia on Hatching Performance in Chickens with Different Genetic Adaptation to High Altitude". Poultry Science 87 (10): 2112–2116. DOI:10.3382/ps.2008-00122. PMID 18809874. 
  23. ↑ Ali (1985). "Early egg production in genetically blind (rc/rc) chickens in comparison with sighted (Rc+/rc) controls". Poultry Science 64 (5): 789–794. DOI:10.3382/ps.0640789. PMID 4001066. 
  24. ↑ Edgar (2016-01-05). "Influences of Maternal Care on Chicken Welfare". Animals 6 (1). DOI:10.3390/ani6010002. PMID 26742081. 
  25. ↑ Sewalem (1999). "Inbreeding and inbreeding depression on reproduction and production traits of White Leghorn lines selected for egg production traits". British Poultry Science 40 (2): 203–208. DOI:10.1080/00071669987601. 
  26. ↑ Xue (1 June 2021). "Identification of genes involved in inbreeding depression of reproduction in Langshan chickens". Animal Bioscience 34 (6): 975–984. DOI:10.5713/ajas.20.0248. ISSN 2765-0189. PMID 33152217. 
  27. ↑ Pennisi (May 24, 2018). "Quaillike creatures were the only birds to survive the dinosaur-killing asteroid impact". Science. DOI:10.1126/science.aau2802. 
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Wong (December 9, 2004). "A genetic variation map for chicken with 2.8 million single nucleotide polymorphisms". Nature 432 (7018): 717–722. DOI:10.1038/nature03156. PMID 15592405. 
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 Lawal (December 2020). "The wild species genome ancestry of domestic chickens". BMC Biology 18 (1): 13. DOI:10.1186/s12915-020-0738-1. PMID 32050971. 
  30. ↑ Eriksson (February 29, 2008). "Identification of the Yellow Skin Gene Reveals a Hybrid Origin of the Domestic Chicken". PLOS Genetics 4 (2): e1000010. DOI:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000010. PMID 18454198. 
  31. ↑ West (1988). "Did chickens go north? New evidence for domestication". J. Archaeol. Sci. 14 (5): 515–533. DOI:10.1016/0305-4403(88)90080-5. 
  32. ↑ Al-Nasser (June 1, 2007). "Overview of chicken taxonomy and domestication". World's Poultry Science Journal 63 (2): 285–300. DOI:10.1017/S004393390700147X. 
  33. ↑ Wang (2020). "863 genomes reveal the origin and domestication of chicken". Cell Research 30 (8): 693–701. DOI:10.1038/s41422-020-0349-y. PMID 32581344. 
  34. ↑ Liu (January 2006). "Multiple maternal origins of chickens: Out of the Asian jungles". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 38 (1): 12–19. DOI:10.1016/j.ympev.2005.09.014. PMID 16275023. 
  35. ↑ Zeder (March 2006). "Documenting domestication: the intersection of genetics and archaeology". Trends in Genetics 22 (3): 139–155. DOI:10.1016/j.tig.2006.01.007. PMID 16458995. 
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Thomson (April 2014). "Using ancient DNA to study the origins and dispersal of ancestral Polynesian chickens across the Pacific". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111 (13): 4826–4831. DOI:10.1073/pnas.1320412111. PMID 24639505. 
  37. ↑ Piper (2017). "The Origins and Arrival of the Earliest Domestic Animals in Mainland and Island Southeast Asia: A Developing Story of Complexity", in Piper: New Perspectives in Southeast Asian and Pacific Prehistory, terra australis. ANU Press. ISBN 9781760460945. Retrieved on May 5, 2023. 
  38. ↑ Meleisea (March 25, 2004). The Cambridge History of the Pacific Islanders. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521003544. Retrieved on March 13, 2019. 
  39. ↑ Crawford (March 13, 2019). Anthropological Genetics: Theory, Methods and Applications. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521546973. Retrieved on March 13, 2019. 
  40. ↑ Neumann. "Study: The Chicken Didn't Cross The Pacific To South America", The Two Way, March 18, 2014. Retrieved on May 5, 2023.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 41.3 41.4 The Cambridge History of Food, 2000, Cambridge University Press, vol.1, pp. 496-499
  42. ↑ Borrell (June 1, 2007). "DNA reveals how the chicken crossed the sea". Nature 447 (7145): 620–621. DOI:10.1038/447620b. PMID 17554271. 
  43. ↑ Storey (June 19, 2007). "Radiocarbon and DNA evidence for a pre-Columbian introduction of Polynesian chickens to Chile". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104 (25): 10335–10339. DOI:10.1073/pnas.0703993104. PMID 17556540. 
  44. ↑ Gongora (2008). "Indo-European and Asian origins for Chilean and Pacific chickens revealed by mtDNA". PNAS 105 (30): 10308–10313. DOI:10.1073/pnas.0801991105. PMID 18663216. 
  45. ↑ Thomson (April 1, 2014). "Using ancient DNA to study the origins and dispersal of ancestral Polynesian chickens across the Pacific". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111 (13): 4826–4831. DOI:10.1073/pnas.1320412111. PMID 24639505. 
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Peters (2024-04-02). "Archaeological and molecular evidence for ancient chickens in Central Asia". Nature Communications 15 (1). DOI:10.1038/s41467-024-46093-2. ISSN 2041-1723. PMID 38565545. 
  47. ↑ Perry-Gal (August 11, 2015). "Earliest economic exploitation of chicken outside East Asia: Evidence from the Hellenistic Southern Levant". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112 (32): 9849–9854. DOI:10.1073/pnas.1504236112. PMID 26195775. 
  48. ↑ Karayanis (March 13, 2019). Regional Greek Cooking. Hippocrene Books. ISBN 9780781811460. Retrieved on March 13, 2019. 
  49. ↑ Chiffolo (March 13, 2019). Cooking with the Bible: Biblical Food, Feasts, and Lore. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 9780313334108. Retrieved on March 13, 2019. 
  50. ↑ Brown (Sep–Oct 2017). "Fast Food". Archaeology 70 (5). ISSN 0003-8113. Retrieved on July 25, 2019. 
  51. ↑ Schiavone (2022-01-20). "Dermanyssus gallinae: the long journey of the poultry red mite to become a vector". Parasites & Vectors 15 (1): 29. DOI:10.1186/s13071-021-05142-1. ISSN 1756-3305. PMID 35057849. 
  52. ↑ Barjesteh (March 2020). "Antiviral responses against chicken respiratory infections: Focus on avian influenza virus and infectious bronchitis virus". Cytokine 127: 154961. DOI:10.1016/j.cyto.2019.154961. PMID 31901597. 
Ewepụtara na https://ig.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nne_ọkụkọ&oldid=182837