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Ebe a na-azụ ọkukọ

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Nnụnụ nke ụwa (ihe dị ka )

Anụ ọkụkọ (/ ˈpoʊltri/) bụ nnụnụ anụ ụlọ nke mmadụ na-edobe maka ebumnobi nke iweta ngwaahịa anụmanụ dị ka anụ, akwa ma ọ bụ nku.[1] A maara omume ịzụ ọkụkọ dị ka ịzụ anụ ọkụkọ. Nnụnụ ndị a na-abụkarị ndị otu superorder Galloanserae (anụ ufe), ọkachasị usoro Galliformes (nke gụnyere ọkụkọ, quail, na toki).[2] Okwu a na-agụnyekwa nnụnụ mmiri nke ezinụlọ Anatidae (ducks na geese) ma ọ dịghị agụnye nnụnụ ọhịa ndị a na-achụgharị maka nri a maara dị ka egwuregwu ma ọ bụ mgbawa.

Nnyocha gbasara mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa na nso nso a metụtara ụdị anụ ọhịa anọ dị ugbu a na-ekpughe na anụ ụlọ ọkụkọ, ụdị anụ ọkụkọ kacha nwee mmadụ, mere n'ihe dị ka afọ 8,000 gara aga na Ndịda Ebe Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Eshia.[3] Ekwenyere na nke a mere n'ihe dị ka afọ 5,400 gara aga, nakwa na Ndịda Ebe Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Eshia.[4] Usoro a nwere ike bụrụ na mbụ mere n'ihi na ndị mmadụ na-akpụpụta ma na-azụ ụmụ nnụnụ n'àkwá anakọtara n'ọhịa, ma emesịa gụnyere idobe nnụnụ ndị ahụ kpamkpam n'agha. O nwere ike ịbụ na a na-eji ọkụkọ ndị nọ n'ụlọ alụ ọgụ na mbụ[5] na quail na-edebekwa abụ ha, ma n'oge na-adịghị anya ndị mmadụ ghọtara uru dị n'inwe nri a dọọrọ n'agha. Ahọpụta ozuzu maka uto ngwa ngwa, ikike ịti akwa akwa, nhazigharị, ịla n'iyi na ime ihe na-ewere ọnọdụ kemgbe ọtụtụ narị afọ, ụdị nke ọgbara ọhụrụ na-adịkarị iche na ndị nna ochie ha. Ọ bụ ezie na a ka na-edobe ụfọdụ nnụnụ n'ìgwè atụrụ nta n'ọtụtụ ebe, a na-azụ ọtụtụ nnụnụ ndị dị n'ahịa taa n'ụlọ ọrụ azụmahịa siri ike.

Tinyere anụ ezi, anụ ọkụkọ bụ otu n'ime ụdị anụ abụọ a na-erikarị n'ụwa niile, yana ihe karịrị 70% nke anụ ahụ na 2012 n'etiti ha; nke abụba. A na-edozi anụ ọkụkọ niile nke ọma ma sie ya nke ọma iji belata ihe ize ndụ nke nsị nri. Ndị na-eri anụ anaghị eri anụ bụ ndị na-eri anụ ọkụkọ dị ka naanị ebe a na-esi enweta anụ ka a na-ekwu na ha na-agbaso pollotarianism.

Okwu mmalite

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Okwu ahụ bụ "nnụnụ" sitere na Middle English pultry ma ọ bụ pultrie, nke sitere na Old French / Norman okwu pouletrie. Okwu maka ọkụkọ na-eto eto, Pullet, dị ka poult ya, sitere na Middle English pulet na Old French polet, ma site na okwu Latịn pullus, nke pụtara nwa nnụnụ ma ọ bụ nwa anụmanụ.[1][2] Okwu ahụ bụ "nnụnụ" sitere na German (cf. Old English Fugol, German Vogel, Danish Fugl). [3]

Nkọwa

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"Anụ ọkụkọ" bụ okwu a na-eji maka ụdị nnụnụ ọ bụla a na-azụ anụ, ndị a dọọrọ n'agha maka uru ya, na omenala ejirila okwu ahụ na-ezo aka na anụ ọhịa (Galliformes) na mmiri mmiri (Anseriformes) ma ọ bụghị nnụnụ cagebirds dị ka nnụnụ na-abụ abụ na parrots." A na-akọwa anụ ọkụkọ" dị ka anụ ụlọ, gụnyere ọkụkọ, turkeys, geese na ọbọgwụ, ndị a zụlitere maka mmepụta anụ ma ọ bụ akwa ma a na-ejikwa okwu ahụ maka anụ nnụnụ ndị a na-eri nri.

Akwụkwọ bụ́ Encyclopædia Britannica depụtara otu ìgwè nnụnụ ahụ ma gụnyekwara anụ ufe na squabs (ụmụ kpalakwukwu).[13] Na R.D. Crawford's Poultry ozuzu na mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa, ahapụla squabs mana agbakwunyere quail Japanese na pheasant nkịtị na ndepụta ahụ, a na-azụkarị nke ikpeazụ na ndọrọ n'agha wee hapụ ya n'ime ọhịa.[14] N'akwụkwọ ochie ya nke 1848 banyere anụ ọkụkọ, Ornamental and Domestic Poultry: History, and Management, Edmund Dixon gụnyere isiakwụkwọ na peafowl, nnụnụ guinea, swan ogbi, toki, ụdị geese dị iche iche, ọbọgwụ muscovy, ọbọgwụ ndị ọzọ na ụdị ọ bụla. ọkụkọ gụnyere bantam.[4]

N'okwu mkparịta ụka, a na-ejikarị okwu ahụ bụ "anụ ufe" eme ihe nso-ya na "ọkụkọ ụlọ" ( Gallus gallus ), ma ọ bụ "anụ ọkụkọ" ma ọ bụ ọbụna "nnụnụ", ọtụtụ asụsụ adịghị ama ọdịiche dị n'etiti "anụ ọkụkọ" na "anụ ufe". ". A na-ejikwa okwu abụọ ahụ mee ihe maka anụ nnụnụ ndị a.[16] Enwere ike ịmata anụ ọkụkọ na "egwuregwu", nke akọwara dị ka nnụnụ ọhịa ma ọ bụ anụ anụ ndị a na-achụgharị maka nri ma ọ bụ egwuregwu, okwu a na-ejikwa kọwaa anụ ndị a mgbe a na-eri ya.

Ihe Nlereanya

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Nnụnụ Nna nna ọhịa Ịzụ n'ụlọ Ojiji Foto
Nne ọkụkọ Nnụnụ na-acha uhie uhie Ndịda na Ndịda Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Eshia Àkwá na anụ
Turkey Anụ ọhịa Mexico Anụ
Nkịta ọhịa nke Japan Akara Japan Àkwá na anụ
Ọbọgwụ Mallard Ihe dị iche iche Àkwá na anụ
Nnụnụ Greylag Ihe dị iche iche Àkwá na anụ
Nnụnụ Guinea Nnụnụ guinea nwere okpu Afrịka Àkwá na anụ
nduru a na-azụ n'ụlọ Nkume nduru Eurasia Anụ

Nkịta ọkụkọ

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Nnụnụ nwere akwa na wattles

Hickens bụ nnụnụ ndị na-adịghị ahụkebe, nnụnụ na-adịghị mma nwere nguzo ziri ezi ma jiri combs na-acha uhie uhie na-acha uhie uhie na wattles n'isi ha mara. Ụmụ nwoke, nke a maara dị ka ọkpa, na-ebukarị ibu, na-acha nkwuwa okwu, ma na-enwe oke nrịbama karịa ụmụ nwanyị (ọkụkọ). Chickens bụ nnụnụ na-anụ ọkụ n'obi, ndị na-anụ ọkụ n'obi, ndị na-ebi n'ala bụ ndị na gburugburu ebe obibi ha na-achọ n'etiti akwụkwọ ndụ akwụkwọ ndụ maka mkpụrụ, invertebrates, na ụmụ anụmanụ ndị ọzọ. Ha anaghị efekarị efe ma e wezụga n'ihi ihe egwu ha chere, na-ahọrọ ịgbaba n'okpuru osisi ma ọ bụrụ na a bịaruo ya nso.[18] Ọkụkọ anụ ụlọ taa ( Gallus gallus domesticus ) sitere na anụ ọhịa na-acha uhie uhie nke Eshia, na-enwetakwa ihe mgbakwunye ọzọ sitere na anụ ọhịa isi awọ, anụ ọhịa Sri Lankan, na anụ ọhịa ndụ ndụ. [5]

Nnyocha genomic na-eme atụmatụ na a zụlitere ọkụkọ ahụ afọ 8,000 gara aga na Ndịda Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Eshia wee gbasaa China na India afọ 2000-3000 ka e mesịrị.[5] Ihe akaebe e gwupụtara n'ala na-akwado ọkụkọ ụlọ na Ndịda Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Eshia tupu 6000 BC, China site na 6000 BC na India site na 2000 BC. [5][6][7] Nnyocha okike dị ịrịba ama nke 2020 nke kwadoro ọkụkọ 863 n'ofe ụwa na-atụ aro na ọkụkọ niile sitere na otu ihe omume obibi nke red junglefowl nke nkesa ya ugbu a bụ na ndịda ọdịda anyanwụ China, n'ebe ugwu Thailand na Myanmar. Ụmụ ọkụkọ ndị a a na-azụ n'ụlọ gbasara n'ebe ndịda ọwụwa anyanwụ na ndịda Eshia ebe ha na ụdị anụ ọhịa ọhịa dị iche iche na-emekọrịta ihe, na-emepụta ụdị mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa na mpaghara dị iche iche. Nnyocha nke ụdị azụmahịa kachasị ewu ewu na-egosi na ụdị White Leghorn nwere ụdị nna dị iche iche e ketara site na ụdị nke red junglefowl.[8][9][10]

Ụmụ ọkụkọ bụ otu n'ime anụmanụ a na-azụ n'ụlọ nke ndị Austronesian na-agafe n'oké osimiri na Taiwan, Island Southeast Asia, Island Melanesia, Madagascar, na Pacific Islands; malite site na 3500 ruo 2500 BC.[11][12]

Ka ọ na-erule afọ 2000 BC, ọkụkọ yiri ka ha eruola Ndagwurugwu Indus na afọ 250 ka e mesịrị, ha rutere Ijipt. A ka na-eji ha eme ihe maka ịlụ ọgụ ma na-ewere ha dị ka ihe nnọchianya nke ọmụmụ. Ndị Rom jiri ha mee ihe n'ịgba afa, ndị Ijipt mekwara ọganihu mgbe ha mụtara usoro siri ike nke ikuchi aka.[13] Kemgbe ahụ, ịzụ ọkụkọ agbasaala gburugburu ụwa maka mmepụta nri na nnụnụ ụlọ bụ isi iyi bara uru nke àkwá na anụ.[14]

Kemgbe a zụlitere ha, e guzobere ọnụ ọgụgụ dị ukwuu nke ụdị ọkụkọ, mana ewezuga Leghorn ọcha, ọtụtụ nnụnụ azụmahịa sitere na ngwakọta.[15] N'ihe dị ka 1800, a malitere idebe ọkụkọ n'ọ̀tụ̀tụ̀ buru ibu, ugbo ọkụkọ dị elu nke oge a dịkwa na United Kingdom site n'ihe dị na 1920 wee guzobe ya na United States n'oge na-adịghị anya mgbe Agha Ụwa nke Abụọ gasịrị. Ka ọ na-erule n'etiti narị afọ nke 20, ụlọ ọrụ na-emepụta anụ ọkụkọ dị mkpa karịa ụlọ ọrụ na'eyi àkwá. Ịzụlite ọkụkọ emeela ka ụdị na ụdị dị iche iche gboo mkpa dị iche iche; nnụnụ na-eyi àkwá nke nwere ike imepụta àkwá 300 n'afọ; nnụisi na-eto ngwa ngwa, nnụnụ nwere anụ maka iri n'oge ha dị obere, na nnụnụ bara uru nke na-emepụta ma ọnụ ọgụgụ dị mma nke àkwá na ozu nwere anụ ahụ. Nnụnụ ndị nwoke anaghị achọ n'ụlọ ọrụ na-eyi àkwá ma enwere ike ịmata ha ozugbo ha pụtara maka igbu ha. N'ụdị anụ, a na-akpụkarị nnụnụ ndị a (nke a na-ejikarị kemịkal) iji gbochie ime ihe ike. Nnụnụ a na-emepụta, nke a na-akpọ capon, nwekwara anụ dị nro ma na-atọ ụtọ.[16]

Ihe osise ndị Rom na-egosi ọgụ ọkụkọ

bantam bụ obere ụdị ọkụkọ ụlọ, ma ọ bụ obere ụdị nke onye otu ụdị, ma ọ bụrụ "ezi bantam" na-enweghị nnukwu ibe ya. Aha ahụ sitere n'obodo Bantam na Java ebe ndị ọrụ ụgbọ mmiri Europe zụrụ obere ọkụkọ maka ihe ha na-etinye n'ụgbọ mmiri.[17] Bantams nwere ike ịbụ otu ụzọ n'ụzọ anọ ruo otu ụzọ n"ụzọ atọ nke nha nnụnụ ma na-eyi obere àkwá. Ndị nwe obere na ndị na-eme ihe ntụrụndụ na-edebe ha maka mmepụta àkwá, iji ha dị ka ọkụkọ, ebumnuche ịchọ mma, na ngosi.[18]

Ịlụ ọgụ ọkụkọ

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A na-ekwu na ịlụ ọgụ bụ egwuregwu ndị na-ekiri ihe nkiri kachasị ochie n'ụwa. Ụmụ nwoke abụọ tozuru etozu (ụmụ oke ma ọ bụ ụmụ oke) ga-alụ ọgụ, ha ga-emekwa ya n'ike ruo mgbe otu merụrụ ahụ ma ọ bụ gbuo ya. Ịlụ ọgụ ọkụkọ jupụtara n'Àgwàetiti Ndịda Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Eshia, ọ na-enwekarị ihe dị mkpa na mgbakwunye na ịbụ egwuregwu ịgba chaa chaa.[12] Ha sokwa n'omenala nke India oge ochie, China, Persia, Gris, Rome, a na-emeri ma ọ bụ furu nnukwu ego dabere na nsonaazụ nke ọgụ. A zụlitere ụdị ndị dị ka Aseel na mpaghara India maka omume ime ihe ike ha.[19] A machibidoro ịlụ ọgụ ọkụkọ n'ọtụtụ mba n'ime narị afọ gara aga n'ihi obi ọjọọ a na-emeso ụmụ anụmanụ.

Ọbọgwụ

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  Ducks bụ nnụnụ mmiri dị n'etiti nwere ọnụ sara mbara, anya n'akụkụ isi, olu dị ogologo, ụkwụ dị mkpirikpi n'azụ, na ụkwụ nwere eriri. Ụmụ nwoke, ndị a maara dị ka drakes, na-adịkarị ukwuu karịa ụmụ nwanyị (nke a maara dị wa ọkụkọ) ma nwee ụcha dị iche na ụdị ụfọdụ. Ọbọgwụ ndị bi n'ụlọ bụ ndị na-eri ihe niile, na-eri anụmanụ na ihe ọkụkụ dị iche iche dịka ụmụ ahụhụ mmiri, molluscs, ikpuru, obere anụmanụ na-ebi n'ala, ahịhịa mmiri, na ahịhịhịa.[20] Ha na-eri nri na mmiri na-adịghị omimi site na ịpị, na-etinye isi ha n'okpuru mmiri na ọdụ ha. Ọtụtụ ọbọgwụ ụlọ dị arọ nke ukwuu iji felie, ha bụkwa nnụnụ na-emekọ ihe ọnụ, na-ahọrọ ibi ma na-agagharị ọnụ n'ìgwè. Ha na-eme ka ábụ́bà ha ghara ịba mmiri site na preening, usoro nke na-agbasa ihe ndị na-esi n'ahụ pụta n'elu ábụ́tụ̀ ha.[21]

Ọbọgwụ ndị dị na Beijing

Ụdị ụrọ nke ọbọgwụ ndị a chọtara na China nke malitere na 4000 BC nwere ike igosi na domestication nke ọbọbọgwụ mere n'ebe ahụ n'oge ọdịbendị Yangshao. Ọbụna ma ọ bụrụ na nke a abụghị eziokwu, ịzụlite ọbọgwụ mere na Far East ọ dịkarịa ala afọ 1500 tupu na West. Lucius Columella, na-ede na narị afọ mbụ BC, dụrụ ndị chọrọ ịzụlite ọbọgwụ ọdụ ka ha chịkọta àkwá nnụnụ ọhịa ma tinye ha n'okpuru ọkụkọ, n'ihi na mgbe a zụlitere ha n'ụzọ a, ọbọgwụ ahụ "na-ahapụ ọdịdị ọhịa ha ma ghara ịla azụ mgbe ha mechiri n'ogige nnụnụ". N'agbanyeghị nke a, ọbọgwụ apụtaghị n'ihe odide ọrụ ugbo na Western Europe ruo n'ihe dị ka 810 AD, mgbe a malitere ịkpọ aha ha n'akụkụ geese, ọkụkọ, na peafowl dị ka ndị a na-eji maka ịkwụ ụgwọ ndị nwe ala.[22]

A na-ekwenye n'ọtụtụ ebe na mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) bụ nna nna nke ụdị ọbọgwụ ụlọ niile (ma e wezụga ọbọgwụ Muscovy (Cairina moschata), nke na-enweghị njikọ chiri anya na ọbọgwụ ndị ọzọ).[22] A na-azụ ọbọgwụ maka anụ ha, àkwá, na ala.[23] Dị ka ọ dị na ọkụkọ, e mepụtara ụdị dị iche iche, ahọrọ maka ikike ịmụ àkwá, uto ngwa ngwa, na ozu kpuchiri nke ọma. Ụdị azụmahịa a na-ahụkarị na United Kingdom na United States bụ ọbọgwụ Pekin, nke nwere ike ịtụrụ àkwá 200 n'afọ ma nwee ike iru ịdị arọ nke 3.5 kg (7 n'ime ụbọchị 44.[21] N'Ụwa Ọdịda Anyanwụ, ọbọgwụ anaghị ewu ewu dị ka ọkụkọ, n'ihi na nke ikpeazụ na-emepụta anụ ọcha buru ibu, anụ na-adịghị mma ma dị mfe idebe ya nke ọma, na-eme ka ọnụahịa Anụ ọkụkọ dị ala karịa nke anụ ọbọgwụ. Ọ bụ ezie na ọ na-ewu ewu na Nri dị elu, ọbọgwụ na-apụta obere ugboro na ụlọ ọrụ nri. Otú ọ dị, ihe dị iche na Ọwụwa Anyanwụ. Ọbọgwụ na-ewu ewu n'ebe ahụ karịa ọkụkọ ma na-abụkarị ndị a na-azụ n'ụzọ ọdịnala ma họrọ maka ikike ha ịchọta nri zuru ezu n'ubi osikapa a na-ewe na gburugburu mmiri ndị ọzọ.[23]

Nnụnụ

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Nnụnụ Emden, nwa nnụnụ ọhịa greylagNnụnụ na-acha odo odo

Ndị Ijipt zụlitere greylag goose (Anser anser) ma ọ dịkarịa ala afọ 3000 gara aga, na ụdị ọhịa dị iche, swan goose (Anser cygnoides), zụliuru na Siberia ihe dị ka otu puku afọ ka e mesịrị, a maara dị ka Chinese goose. [24][25] Ha abụọ na-agwakọta ibe ha na nnukwu bọtịnụ dị n'ala ọnụ, ihe a na-ahụ anya nke Chinese goose, dị n'ụzọ dịgasị iche na ngwakọta ndị a. Mkpụrụ ndị a na-amị mkpụrụ ma mepụta ọtụtụ ụdị nke oge a. N'agbanyeghị na ha bụ ndị a zụlitere n'oge gara aga, geese enwetụbeghị mkpa azụmahịa nke ọkụkọ na ọbọgwụ.[24]

Geese ndị bi n'ụlọ buru ibu karịa ndị ibe ha dị n'ọhịa ma na-enwekarị olu siri ike, ọnọdụ kwụ ọtọ, na nnukwu ahụ nwere nnukwu azụ azụ. Nnụnụ ndị sitere na greylag buru ibu ma nwee anụ ma jiri ya mee anụ, ebe geese ndị China nwere obere okpokoro ma jiri ya emepụta àkwá. A na-eji ezigbo ala nke abụọ ahụ akpọrọ ihe maka iji ya mee ihe na ohiri isi na uwe a na-etinye na ya. Ha na-eri ahịhịa na ahịhịhịa, na-agbakwunye nke a na obere anụ ndị na-enweghị azụ, otu n'ime ihe na-adọrọ mmasị nke ịzụlite geese bụ ikike ha itolite ma na-eto eto na usoro ahịhịrị.[26] Ha na-eme mkpakọrịta ma nwee ezi ncheta ma nwee ike ikwe ka ha na-agagharị n'ọtụtụ ebe na ihe ọmụma na ha ga-alaghachi n'ụlọ n'oge mgbede. Nnụnụ China na-eme ihe ike ma na-eme mkpọtụ karịa nnụnụ ndị ọzọ ma enwere ike iji ya mee ihe dị ka anụ nche iji dọọ ndị na-abanye aka ná ntị.[24] Anụ anụ geese na-acha oji ma nwee protein dị elu, mana ha na-etinye abụba n'okpuru akpụkpọ ahụ, ọ bụ ezie na abụba a nwere ọtụtụ monounsaturated fatty acids. A na-egbu nnụnụ ma ọ bụ n'ihe dị ka izu 10 ma ọ bụ ihe dị ka izu 24. N'etiti afọ ndị a, nsogbu na-eyi ozu na-eme n'ihi ọnụnọ nke ábụ́bà na-eto eto.[26]

Na mba ụfọdụ, a na-enye geese na ọbọgwụ nri iji mepụta afọ nwere abụba dị elu maka mmepụta nke foie gras. Ihe karịrị 75% nke mmepụta ụwa nke ngwaahịa a na-ewere ọnọdụ na France, yana ụlọ ọrụ ndị dị obere na Hungary na Bulgaria na mmepụta na-eto eto na China.[27] A na-ewere Foie gras dị ka ihe okomoko n'ọtụtụ akụkụ nke ụwa, mana a machibidoro usoro inye nnụnụ nri n'ụzọ a n'ọtụtụ mba n'ihi ọdịmma anụmanụ.[28]

Akị Turkey

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

 

Anụ ọhịa turkey a zụlitere n'ụlọ na-egosipụta mmekọahụ site n'igosi anwụrụ ọkụ na-ese n'elu ọnụ ya, caruncles na-ese na akpịrị ya, na 'afụ ọnụ' nke obere, ojii, ábụ́bà siri ike n'obi

Turkeys bụ nnụnụ buru ibu, ndị ikwu ha kacha nso bụ pheasant na guineafowl. Ụmụ nwoke buru ibu karịa ụmụ nwanyị ma nwee ọdụ na-agbasa, nke yiri fan na nke pụrụ iche, nke anụ ahụ, nke a na-akpọ snow, nke na-anọdụ n'elu ọnụ ma jiri ya mee ihe na ngosipụta mbedo. Turkeys ọhịa nwere ike ife efe, mana ha anaghị eme ya, ha na-ahọrọ ịgba ọsọ ogologo, na-agagharị agagharị. Ha na-anọ n'osisi ma na-eri nri n'ala, na-eri mkpụrụ, mkpụrụ osisi, ahịhịa, akwụkwọ osisi, anụ ndị na-enweghị azụ, ezé, na obere agwọ.[29]

Anụ ọhịa turkey nke oge a sitere n'otu n'ime ụdị isii nke anụ ọhịa turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) nke a hụrụ na steeti Mexico nke Jalisco, Guerrero na Veracruz ugbu a. Agbụrụ ndị dị na ndịda etiti Mexico bu ụzọ chọta nnụnụ ahụ n'ihe dị ka 800 BC, ndị Pueblo Indian bi na Colorado Plateau na United States mekwara otu ihe ahụ n'ebe 200 BC. Ha na-eji ábụ́bà eme ihe maka uwe elu, blanket, na ebumnuche ememe. Ihe karịrị 1,000 afọ ka e mesịrị, ha ghọrọ ihe oriri dị mkpa.[30] Ndị Europe mbụ zutere nnụnụ ahụ mehiere ya dị ka guineafowl, nnụnụ a maara dị ka "nnụnụ ọkụkọ" n'oge ahụ n'ihi na e webatara ya na Europe site na Turkey.[29]

A na-azụkarị turkey ndị ahịa n'ime ụlọ n'okpuru ọnọdụ a na-achịkwa. Ndị a na-abụkarị nnukwu ụlọ, nke e wuru iji nye ikuku na obere ìhè (nke a na-ebelata ọrụ nnụnụ ma si otú ahụ na-abawanye ọnụego ibu). Enwere ike ịgbanye ọkụ maka awa 24 / ụbọchị, ma ọ bụ usoro ọkụ dị iche iche iji gbaa nnụnụ ume iri nri ugboro ugboro ma yabụ na-eto ngwa ngwa.  Ụmụ nwanyị na-enweta ibu igbu egbu n'ihe dị ka izu 15 na ụmụ nwoke n'ihe dịka afọ 19. Nnụnụ azụmahịa tozuru etozu nwere ike ịdị arọ okpukpu abụọ karịa ndị ibe ha n'ọhịa. E mepụtara ọtụtụ ụdị dị iche iche, mana ọtụtụ nnụnụ azụmahịa na-acha ọcha, ebe nke a na-eme ka ọdịdị nke ozu ahụ dị mma, na-adịghị ahụkebe.[31] A na-eri turkeys n'otu oge n'oge pụrụ iche dị ka Krismas (ndị nnụnụ 10 nde na United Kingdom) ma ọ bụ Ekele (ndị ndụnụ 60 nde na United States). Otú ọ dị, ha na-aghọwanye akụkụ nke nri kwa ụbọchị n'ọtụtụ akụkụ nke ụwa. [32]

Nnụnụ ndị ọzọ

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Guineafowl malitere na ndịda Afrịka, ụdị a na-ejikarị eme ihe dị ka ọkụkọ bụ guineafowl nwere okpu (Numida meleagris). Ọ bụ nnụnụ na-acha ntụ ntụ ma ọ bụ nke nwere ntụpọ nke nwere obere isi gba ọtọ na wattles mara mma na bọtịnụ n'elu, a zụkwara ya n'oge ndị Gris na ndị Rom oge ochie. Guineafowl bụ nnụnụ siri ike, nke nwere mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya nke na-eri ụmụ ahụhụ, mana ọ na-erikwa ahịhịa na mkpụrụ. Ha ga-eme ka ubi akwụkwọ nri ghara ịba na nje ma rie akọrọ na-ebu Ọrịa Lyme. Ha ji obi ụtọ na-anọ n'osisi ma na-enye ịdọ aka ná ntị olu banyere ịbịaru ndị na-eri ibe ha nso. Enwere ike iri anụ na àkwá ha n'otu ụzọ ahụ ọkụkọ, ụmụ nnụnụ dị njikere maka tebụl mgbe ha dị ihe dị ka ọnwa anọ.[33]

A squab bụ aha e nyere ụmụ nduru ụlọ ndị a kara aka maka tebụl. Dị ka nduru ndị ọzọ a na-azụ n'ụlọ, nnụnụ ndị a na-eji eme ihe maka nzube a sitere na nduru nkume (Columba livia). A na-eji ụdị ọrụ pụrụ iche nwere njirimara ndị a na-achọsi ike. A na-eyi àkwá abụọ ma kụọ ha ihe dị ka ụbọchị 17. Mgbe ha pupụtara, ndị nne na nna abụọ na-enye squabs nri na "mmiri ara nduru", nke nwere protein dị elu nke ihe ọkụkụ ahụ mepụtara. Squabs na-eto ngwa ngwa, mana ha na-eji nwayọ na-efe efe ma dị njikere ịhapụ akwụ́ na ụbọchị 26 ruo 30 na-adị ihe dị ka 500 . Ka ọ na-erule n'oge a, nduru ndị toro eto ga-eyi àkwá abụọ ọzọ ma na-amụba abụọ kwesịrị imepụta squabs abụọ kwa izu anọ n'oge oge ọmụmụ nke na-ewe ọtụtụ ọnwa.[34]

Ịkpa ọkụkọ

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

 

Ọbọgwụ ndị na-agagharị n'efu na Hainan Province, China
Nnụnụ ndị dị n'ụlọ batrị enweghị ike ịgagharị n'enweghị ihe mgbochi, ọtụtụ nnụnụ bi n'otu ụlọ.

N'ụwa nile, a na-azụ ọtụtụ ọkụkọ karịa ụdị ọkụkọ ọ bụla ọzọ, na ihe karịrị ijeri nnụnụ 50 a na-akpalite kwa afọ dị ka isi iyi nke anụ na àkwá.[35] Dị ka omenala si dị, a ga-edebe nnụnụ ndị dị otú ahụ n'ọtụtụ obere ìgwè, na-eri nri n'ehihie ma na-ebi n'abalị. Nke a ka bụ eziokwu na mba ndị na-emepe emepe, ebe ụmụ nwanyị na-enyekarị aka dị mkpa maka ndụ ezinụlọ site n'ịzụ ọkụkọ. Otú ọ dị, mmụba nke ọnụ ọgụgụ mmadụ n'ụwa na ime obodo emeela ka ọtụtụ mmepụta dị na nnukwu, ndị ọkachamara na-arụsi ọrụ ike. A na-adịkarị nso n'ebe a na-akụ nri ma ọ bụ nso n' ebe anụ dị mkpa, ma na-eme ka nri dị ọnụ ala, dị nchebe maka obodo ndị mepere emepe.[36] Uru nke mmepụta na-adabere nke ukwuu na ọnụahịa nri, nke na-arị elu. Ọnụ ego nri dị elu nwere ike igbochi mmepe nke mmepụta ọkụkọ.[37]

N'ịkpa anụ n'efu, nnụnụ nwere ike ịgagharị n'èzí n'enweghị nsogbu ma ọ dịkarịa ala akụkụ nke ụbọchị. Ọtụtụ mgbe, nke a na-adị n'ime nnukwu ogige, mana nnụnụ nwere ike ịnweta ọnọdụ okike ma nwee ike igosipụta omume ha. Usoro siri ike karị bụ yarding, ebe nnụnụ nwere ike ịbanye n'ogige e ji mgbidi gbaa gburugburu na ụlọ ọkụkọ na ọnụego dị elu. A pụkwara idebe ọkụkọ n'ime ụlọ nkwakọba ihe, na-enweghị ohere ịnweta ikuku, mana enwere ike ịgagharị n'enweghị nsogbu n'ime ime ụlọ ahụ. Usoro kachasị sie ike maka ụmụ ọkụkọ na-eyi àkwá bụ Ụlọ batrị, nke a na-etinyekarị n'ọtụtụ ọkwa. N'ime ndị a, ọtụtụ nnụnụ na-ekerịta obere ụlọ nke na-egbochi ikike ha ịgagharị ma na-akpa àgwà n'ụzọ dị mma. A na-eyi àkwá n'ala nke ụlọ ahụ ma tụgharịa ya n'ime olulu n'èzí maka ịdị mfe nke nchịkọta. Batrị maka ọkụkọ bụ iwu na-akwadoghị na EU kemgbe Jenụwarị 1, 2012.[35]

Ugbo ọkụkọ na Vernon County, Wisconsin na ogige gbara ogige na ebe mkpuchi maka ọkụkọ ịgagharị

Chickens raised intensively for their meat are known as "broilers". Breeds have been developed that can grow to an acceptable carcass size (Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Convert/data' not found.) in six weeks or less.[38] Broilers grow so fast, their legs cannot always support their weight and their hearts and respiratory systems may not be able to supply enough oxygen to their developing muscles. Mortality rates at 1% are much higher than for less-intensively reared laying birds which take 18 weeks to reach similar weights.[38] Processing the birds is done automatically with conveyor-belt efficiency. They are hung by their feet, stunned, killed, bled, scalded, plucked, have their heads and feet removed, eviscerated, washed, chilled, drained, weighed, and packed,[39] all within the course of little over two hours.[38]

Ma ọrụ ugbo siri ike ma nke na-enweghị ihe mgbochi nwere nchegbu maka ọdịmma anụmanụ. N'ime usoro siri ike, cannibalism, feather pecking na vent pecking nwere ike ịbụ ihe a na-ahụkarị, na ụfọdụ ndị ọrụ ugbo na-eji ọnụ trimming dị ka ihe mgbochi.[40] Ọrịa nwekwara ike ịbụ ihe a na-ahụkarị ma gbasaa ngwa ngwa n'ìgwè atụrụ. N'ime usoro sara mbara, nnụnụ na-ahụ ọnọdụ ihu igwe ọjọọ ma bụrụ ndị na-eri ibe ha na nnụnụ ọhịa na-ebu ọrịa na-emetụta. Achọpụtala na usoro ụmụ nnụnụ nwere ọdịmma nnụnụ kachasị njọ.[40] Na Ndịda Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Eshia, enweghị nchịkwa ọrịa na ọrụ ugbo n'efu ejikọtara ya na ntiwapụ nke influenza nnụnụ.[41]

Ihe ngosi ọkụkọ

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

N'ọtụtụ mba, a na-eme ihe ngosi ọkụkọ nke mba na nke mpaghara ebe ndị na-anụ ọkụ n'obi na-egosi nnụnụ ha nke a na-ekpe ikpe na ụfọdụ àgwà ọmụmụ dị ka akọwapụtara site na ụkpụrụ ọmụmụ ha. Echiche nke ngosi ọkụkọ nwere ike ịmalite mgbe emechara ọgụ ọkụkọ iwu na-akwadoghị, dị ka ụzọ isi nọgide na-enwe asọmpi na ịzụ ọkụkọ. E debere ụkpụrụ ọmụmụ maka ịtụrụ àkwá, ụdị anụ, na nnụnụ ịchọ mma, na-achọ ka ha bụrụ otu.[42] Mgbe ụfọdụ, ihe ngosi ọkụkọ bụ akụkụ nke ihe ngosi anụ ụlọ n'ozuzu ya, mgbe ụfọdụ ha bụ ihe omume dị iche iche dị ka "National Championship Show" kwa afọ na United Kingdom nke Poultry Club of Great Britain haziri.[43]

Anụ ọkụkọ dị ka nri

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Azụmaahịa

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]
A na-ere àkwá ọkụkọ na ọbọgwụ na Hong Kong

Anụ ọkụkọ bụ ụdị anụ nke abụọ a na-eri n'ụwa, na-eme ihe dị ka pasent 30 nke anụ niile a na-emepụta n'ụwa niile ma e jiri ya tụnyere anụ ezì na pasent 38. A na-azụlite ijeri nnụnụ iri na isii kwa afọ maka oriri, ihe karịrị ọkara n'ime ndị a na ụlọ ọrụ mmepụta ihe, ụlọ ọrụ mmepe.[44] Mmepụta anụ a na-egweri egweri n'ụwa niile rịrị elu ruo nde tọn 84.6 n'afọ 2013. Ndị na-emepụta ihe kachasị ukwuu bụ United States (20%), China (16.6%), Brazil (15.1%) na European Union (11.3%). [45] E nwere ụdị abụọ dị iche iche nke mmepụta; ụdị usoro nnyefe nke European Union na-achọ ịnye ngwaahịa nke enwere ike ịchọta azụ na ugbo mmalite. Ihe nlereanya a na-eche ọnụahịa na-arịwanye elu nke itinye n'ọrụ ihe nchekwa nri ndị ọzọ, nsogbu ọdịmma na iwu gburugburu ebe obibi ihu. N'ụzọ dị iche, ihe nlereanya United States na-agbanwe ngwaahịa ahụ ka ọ bụrụ ngwaahịa.[46]

Mmepụta ụwa nke anụ ọbọgwụ bụ ihe dị ka nde tọn 4.2 na 2011 na China na-emepụta ụzọ abụọ n'ụzọ atọ nke ngụkọta, ihe dị ka ijeri nnụnụ 1.7.[47] Mba ndị ọzọ a ma ama na-emepụta ọbọgwụ na Far East gụnyere Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Myanmar, Indonesia na South Korea (12% n'ozuzu). France (3.5%) bụ onye na-emepụta ihe kachasị na West, mba EU ndị ọzọ (3%) na North America (1.7%) sochiri.[22] China bụkwa onye kachasị emepụta anụ goose na guinea fowl, na òkè 94% nke ahịa ụwa nde tọn 2.6. [47]

A na-atụ anya na mmepụta àkwá zuru ụwa ọnụ ga-eru nde tọn 65.5 na 2013, karịa afọ niile gara aga.[48] N'agbata afọ 2000 na afọ 2010, mmepụta àkwá na-eto n'ụwa niile na ihe dị ka 2% kwa afọ, mana kemgbe ahụ, uto ejirila nwayọọ nwayọọ belata ruo ihe dị nso na 1% . [48] N'afọ 2018, mmepụta àkwá ruru nde tọn 76.7, nnukwu uto 24% kemgbe afọ 2008. [49]

Ebe a na-egbu anụ ọkụkọ

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]
N'ụlọ ọkụkọ nke Rungis International Market, France

A na-enweta ọkụkọ ọhụrụ ma ọ bụ kpọnwụrụ akpọnwụ, dị ka nnụnụ dum ma ọ bụ dị ka nkwonkwo (nke a na-ebipụ), ọkpụkpụ ma ọ bụ nke a na-ewepụ, nke a na'ụzọ dị iche iche, nke a chịrị ma ọ bụ sie.[50] Akụkụ anụ kachasị mma nke nnụnụ bụ uru ahụ na-efe efe n'obi ya, nke a na-akpọ anụ "obi", na uru ahụ na na-agagharị agagharị n'ụkwụ ya, nke akpọrọ "mkpịsị ụkwụ" na "ụbọ". A na-eri nku ya (nku Buffalo bụ ihe atụ a ma ama na United States) ma nwee ike kewaa ya n'akụkụ atọ, "drumette", "wingette" (nke a na-akpọkwa "flat"), na isi nku (nke a makwaara dị ka "flapper"). [50][51] Na Japan, a na-ekewa nku ahụ ugboro ugboro, a na'akpọkwa akụkụ ndị a 手羽元 (Teba-moto "ala nku") na 手羽先 (teba -saki "isi nku"). [52]

A na-eji anụ ojii, nke ndị na-ahụ maka myology nnụnụ na-akpọ "ọbara uhie", eme ihe maka ọrụ na-aga n'ihu - ọkachasị ịga ije, n'ihe gbasara ọkụkọ. Agba gbara ọchịchịrị na-abịa site na protein myoglobin, nke na-arụ ọrụ dị mkpa na ikuku oxygen na nchekwa n'ime mkpụrụ ndụ. Mkpụrụ obi ọcha, n'ụzọ dị iche, dị mma naanị maka obere ọrụ dịka, maka ọkụkọ, na-efe efe. Ya mere, ụkwụ ọkụkọ na anụ apata ụkwụ ya gbara ọchịchịrị, ebe anụ ara ya (nke mejupụtara uru ahụ isi) na-acha ọcha. Nnụnụ ndị ọzọ nwere uru ara dabara adaba maka nnụnụ na-aga n'ihu, dị ka ọbọgwụ na geese, nwere uru ahụ na-acha ọbara ọbara (ya mere anụ ojii) n'ebe niile.[53] Ụfọdụ anụ ndị a na-egbu gụnyere anụ ọkụkọ na-ekpughe usoro microscopic nke intracellular muscle fibrils nke nwere ike iwepụ ìhè ma mepụta ụcha na-egbuke egbuke, ihe ọhụụ a na-akpọ mgbe ụfọdụ ụcha.[54]

Ahụike na ọrịa (mmadụ)

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]
Ihe e gburu site na ọkụkọ ndị e gburu egbu

Ka ọ na-erule afọ 2022, ọ dịghị nnwale ahụike nyochara nri ọkụkọ na ahụike mmadụ.[55] Anụ ọkụkọ na àkwá na-enye nri bara uru na-edozi ahụ nke nwere protein dị elu. Nke a na-esonyere obere abụba nke nwere ngwakọta abụba dị mma.[56] Anụ ọkụkọ nwere ihe dị ka okpukpu abụọ ruo atọ karịa abụba polyunsaturated dị ka ọtụtụ ụdị anụ na-acha ọbara ọbara mgbe a na-atụ ya site na ịdị arọ.[57] Otú ọ dị, maka ara ọkụkọ na-enweghị ọkpụkpụ, nke na-enweghị akpụkpọ ahụ, ọnụ ọgụgụ ahụ dị ala. 100 gram (3.5 nke ara ọkụkọ a na-esighị esi nwere gram 2 (0.071 nke abụba na gram 22 (0.78 nke protein, ma e jiri ya tụnyere gram 9 (0.32 nke fatty na gram 20 (0.71 ya nke protein maka otu akụkụ nke anụ uhie a na-adịghị esi.[58][59]

Nnyocha 2011 nke Translational Genomics Research Institute gosipụtara na 47% nke anụ na anụ ọkụkọ a na-ere na ụlọ ahịa nri United States emetọla Staphylococcus aureus, na 52% nke nje bacteria gosipụtara iguzogide ọ dịkarịa ala ìgwè atọ nke ọgwụ nje. Nri zuru oke nke ngwaahịa ahụ ga-egbu nje bacteria ndị a, mana ihe ize ndụ nke mmetọ site na njikwa na-ezighị ezi nke ngwaahịa ahụ ka dị.[60] Ọzọkwa, ihe ize ndụ ụfọdụ dị maka ndị na-eri anụ ọkụkọ na àkwá na nje bacteria dịka Salmonella na Campylobacter. Ngwaahịa ọkụkọ nwere ike imerụ nje bacteria ndị a n'oge njikwa, nhazi, ahịa, ma ọ bụ nchekwa, na-akpata ọrịa sitere na nri ma ọ bụrụ na esighị ngwaahịa ahụ ma ọ bụ jikwa ya n'ụzọ na-ezighị ezi.[56]

N'ozuzu, influenza nnụnụ bụ ọrịa nnụnụ nke nje influenza A nke nnụnụ na-akpata nke a na-adịghị ebufe ndị mmadụ; Otú ọ dị, ndị na-emetụta ọkụkọ dị ndụ nọ n'ihe ize ndụ kachasị ukwuu nke ibute nje ahụ na nke a bụ nchegbu pụrụ iche na mpaghara ndị dị ka Ndịda Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Eshia, ebe ọrịa ahụ dị na nnụnụ ọhịa na ọkụkọ ụlọ nwere ike ibute ọrịa. Nje ahụ nwere ike ịgbanwe ka ọ bụrụ ihe na-egbu egbu ma na-efe efe n'ime ụmụ mmadụ ma na-akpata ọrịa influenza.[61]

Enwere ike ịzụlite nje bacteria na ụlọ nyocha na mgbasa ozi ọdịbendị na-edozi ahụ, mana nje virus chọrọ mkpụrụ ndụ dị ndụ iji mepụta. Enwere ike ịzụlite ọtụtụ ọgwụ mgbochi Ọrịa na-efe efe na àkwá ọkụkọ. A na-eji ọtụtụ nde àkwá eme ihe kwa afọ iji mepụta ọgwụ mgbochi ọrịa influenza a chọrọ kwa afọ, usoro dị mgbagwoju anya nke na-ewe ihe dị ka ọnwa isii mgbe e mere mkpebi banyere ụdị nje virus ga-etinye na ọgwụ mgbochi ọhụrụ ahụ. Nsogbu na iji àkwá maka ebumnuche a bụ na ndị na-arịa ọrịa na-adịghị anabata àkwá enweghị ike imeri ha, mana enwere ike imeri nsogbu a ka usoro ọhụrụ maka mkpụrụ ndụ kama ịba ụba.[62] Ọdịbendị dabeere na mkpụrụ ndụ ga-aba uru na ọrịa na-efe efe mgbe o nwere ike isi ike inweta nnukwu ego nke àkwá kwesịrị ekwesị.[63]

Hụkwa

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  • Nnụnụ Egwuregwu
  • Ọrịa na-adịghị anabata ọkụkọ
  • Ọrịa na-efe efe nke Newcastle

Ebem si dee

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  3. ↑ Poultry. Online Etymology Dictionary. Ehitymonline.com. Retrieved on February 12, 2014.
  4. ↑ Dixon (1848). Ornamental and Domestic Poultry: Their History, and Management. Gardeners' Chronicle. “poultry history.” 
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  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Blust (June 2002). "The History of Faunal Terms in Austronesian Languages". Oceanic Linguistics 41 (1): 89–139. DOI:10.2307/3623329. 
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  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Buckland, R.. Origins and Breeds of Domestic Geese. FAO Agriculture Department. Retrieved on February 17, 2014.
  25. ↑ Streit, Scott (2000). White Chinese Goose. Bird Friends Of San Diego County. Retrieved on February 17, 2014.
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  27. ↑ Mo Hong'e. "China to boost foie gras production", China View, April 11, 2006. Retrieved on March 9, 2014.
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  30. ↑ Viegas, Jennifer. "Native Americans First Tamed Turkeys 2,000 Years Ago", February 1, 2010. Retrieved on February 19, 2014.
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  32. ↑ Bill, Joe (December 18, 2013). Can turkey rule the roost all year round?. Your Shepway. Archived from the original on March 3, 2014. Retrieved on March 3, 2014.
  33. ↑ Jacob, Jacquie. Keeping Guinea fowl. University of Kentucky. Retrieved on March 9, 2014.
  34. ↑ Bolla, Gerry (April 1, 2007). "Primefacts: Squab raising". Primefacts. ISSN 1832-6668. Retrieved on March 9, 2014. 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Compassion in World Farming: Poultry. Ciwf.org.uk. Archived from the original on February 27, 2014. Retrieved on February 12, 2014.
  36. ↑ Animal production and health: Poultry. FAO (September 25, 2012). Retrieved on February 27, 2014.
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  39. ↑ Meat chicken farm sequence (processing). Poultry Hub (August 20, 2010). Retrieved on February 21, 2014.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Sherwin, C. M. (2010). "A comparison of the welfare of layer hens in four housing systems in the UK". British Poultry Science 51 (4): 488–499. DOI:10.1080/00071668.2010.502518. PMID 20924842. 
  41. ↑ Free-range farming and avian flu in Asia. WSPA International. Archived from the original on December 16, 2013. Retrieved on February 12, 2014.
  42. ↑ History of poultry. Poultry Club of Great Britain. Archived from the original on February 28, 2014. Retrieved on February 23, 2014.
  43. ↑ Types of Show. Poultry Club of Great Britain. Archived from the original on February 26, 2014. Retrieved on February 23, 2014.
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  45. ↑ USDA Livestock & Poultry: World Markets & Trade. The Poultry Site (April 30, 2013). Archived from the original on February 27, 2014. Retrieved on February 24, 2014.
  46. ↑ Manning, Louise (2007). "Trends in the global poultry meat supply chain". British Food Journal 109 (5): 332–342. DOI:10.1108/00070700710746759. 
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 USDA International Livestock & Poultry: World Duck, Goose and Guinea Fowl Meat Situation. The Poultry Site (December 19, 2013). Archived from the original on June 29, 2017. Retrieved on March 9, 2014.
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  49. ↑ Global Egg Production Continues to Grow (en-GB). International Egg Commission (2020-06-19). Retrieved on 2024-01-21.
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Poultry meat cuts. FeedCo USA. Archived from the original on April 30, 2013. Retrieved on March 1, 2014.
  51. ↑ America, You're Getting Two-Thirds of the Hot Wing. Archived from the original on September 7, 2015. Retrieved on April 3, 2014.
  52. ↑ Hosking (1996). 日本料理用語辞典 (英文): Ingredients & Culture. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8048-2042-4. 
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  54. ↑ Martinez-Hurtado, J. L. (2013). "Iridescence in Meat Caused by Surface Gratings". Foods 2 (4): 499–506. DOI:10.3390/foods2040499. PMID 28239133. 
  55. ↑ (2022) "Poultry Consumption and Human Health: How Much Is Really Known? A Systematically Searched Scoping Review and Research Perspective". Advances in Nutrition 13 (6): 2115–2124. DOI:10.1093/advances/nmac074. PMID 36351778. 
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 Poultry and human health. FAO (August 1, 2013). Retrieved on February 25, 2014."Poultry and human health". FAO. August 1, 2013. Retrieved February 25, 2014.
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  58. ↑ United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. FoodData Central | Chicken, breast, boneless, skinless, raw. fdc.nal.usda.gov. Retrieved on 2024-03-13.
  59. ↑ United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. FoodData Central | Beef, flank, steak, boneless, choice, raw. fdc.nal.usda.gov. Retrieved on 2024-03-13.
  60. ↑ The Translational Genomics Research Institute. "US meat and poultry is widely contaminated with drug-resistant Staph bacteria, study finds", Science Daily, April 15, 2011. Retrieved on February 27, 2014.
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  63. ↑ Vaccines for pandemic threats. The History of Vaccines (January 15, 2014). Retrieved on March 5, 2014.
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