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Meta Vaux Warrick Fuller

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Meta Vaux Warrick Fuller
Meta Vaux Warrick Fuller in 1910
Born
Meta Vaux Warrick

June 9, 1877
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.
DiedMaachị 13, 1968(1968-03-13) (aged 90)Templeeti:Efn
Framingham, Massachusetts, U.S.
EducationUniversity of the Arts, College of Art and Design, Académie Colarossi, École des Beaux-Arts
OccupationSculptor, painter, poet
MovementHarlem Renaissance
Spouse(s)
Children3
Parent(s)William H. Warrick
Emma Jones
Meta Vaux Warrick Fuller
mmádu
ụdịekerenwanyị Dezie
mba o sịNjikota Obodo Amerika Dezie
aha enyereMeta Dezie
aha pseudonymFuller, Meta Vaux Warrick Dezie
ụbọchị ọmụmụ ya9 Jụn 1877 Dezie
Ebe ọmụmụPhiladelphia Dezie
Ụbọchị ọnwụ ya18 Maachị 1968 Dezie
Ebe ọ nwụrụFramingham Dezie
Dị/nwunyeSolomon Carter Fuller Dezie
IkwuElizabeth Cardozo Barker Dezie
asụsụ ọ na-asụ, na-ede ma ọ bụ were na-ebinye akaBekee Dezie
ọrụ ọ na-arụonye na-akpụ ihe ọkpụkpụ, odee uri, omenkà Dezie
ebe agụmakwụkwọPennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art, Académie Colarossi, The University of the Arts Dezie
agbụrụNdi Afrika nke Amerika Dezie
Archive naSchomburg Center for Research in Black Culture Dezie
IjeHarlem Renaissance Dezie
Onye òtù nkeAlpha Kappa Alpha Dezie
onye nlereranyaW. E. B. Du Bois, Auguste Rodin Dezie
nchịkọtaDanforth Museum Dezie
Nwere ọrụ na mkpokọtaWoodmere Art Museum, Studio Museum in Harlem Dezie
ikike nwebiisinka dị ka onye okikeỌrụ nwebiisinka chekwara Dezie
omenkà faịlụ naSmithsonian American Art and Portrait Gallery Library, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture Dezie

Meta Vaux Warrick Fuller ( / m iː tə ˈ v aʊ / MEE -tə VOW ; a mụrụ Meta Vaux Warrick ; June 9, 1877 – Maachị 13, 1968 [lower-alpha 1] ) bụ onye omenkà America-Afrika nke mere mmemme Afrocentric . N'ihu Harlem Renaissance, a maara Warrick dị ka onye na-ede uri, onye na-ese ihe, onye na-emepụta ihe nkiri, na onye na-ese ihe nke ahụmahụ ojii America. Na mmalite nke narị afọ nke 20, ọ nwetara aha dị ka onye mbụ na-ese onyinyo nwanyị ojii na ọ bụ onye na-ese ihe a ma ama na Paris tupu ya alaghachi United States. [1]

Warrick bụ onye nchebe nke Auguste Rodin, a kọwakwara ya dị ka "otu n'ime ndị na-ese ihe ojii na-eche echiche nke ọgbọ ya." Site n'inwe ụdị ihe atụ nke egwu egwu na ịhọrọ igosipụta ihe omume nke ikpe na-ezighị ezi nke agbụrụ, dị ka lynching nke Mary Turner, Warrick ji ikpo okwu ya mee ihe iji dozie nsogbu ọha mmadụ nke ndị America America.

Ndụ mbido

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Meta Vaux Warrick Fuller mụrụ na Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, na June 9, 1877. [2] Nne na nna ya bụ Emma (née Jones) Warrick, onye na-eme wig nke ọma na onye na-achọ mma maka ụmụ nwanyị ọcha nke elu, [3] na William H. Warrick, onye na-akpụ isi na onye na-eri nri na-aga nke ọma. [4] [5] Nna ya nwere ọtụtụ ụlọ ahịa ndị na-akpụ isi na nne ya nwere ụlọ ịcha mma nke ya. Warrick bụ, n'ezie, aha ya bụ Meta Vaux, ada nke Senator Richard Vaux, otu n'ime ndị ahịa nne ya. [6] Nna nna ya, Henry Jones, bụ onye na-eri nri na-aga nke ọma n'obodo ahụ. [6] A na-ele nne na nna ya abụọ anya dị ka ndị nwere mmetụta na obodo Africa-American. [4]

Ọkwa klaasị ezinụlọ ya bụ ihe ùgwù pụrụ iche e nyere ha site na nkà ha na ebe ha nọ. [2] [4] [5] Mgbe nbata nke ndị ojii n'efu malitere ime ụlọ na Philadelphia, ọrụ ndị dịnụ na-adịkarị ike n'anụ ahụ ma na-akwụ ụgwọ dị ala. Ọ bụ nanị mmadụ ole na ole nwetara ọrụ ndị a na-achọsi ike dị ka ndị ozi, ndị dọkịta, ndị na-akpụ isi, ndị nkụzi, na ndị na-enye nri. [7] N'oge nwughari, n'ihi ịkpa ókè agbụrụ, iwu nkewa agbụrụ kwadoro iwu, gụnyere iwu Jim Crow na-ejedebe ọganihu ọha mmadụ nke ndị America America na narị afọ nke 20. [7] N'agbanyeghị nke a, nne na nna Warrick nwere ike ịchọta ihe ịga nke ọma n'ichepụta [2] [4] [6] n'etiti "ebe ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị, omenala, na akụ na ụba" nke obodo Afrika-American nke Philadelphia hiwere. [7]

Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts (c. 1895)

N'ihi ihe ịga nke ọma nke ndị mụrụ ya, e nyere ya ohere dị iche iche omenala na agụmakwụkwọ. [2] Warrick zụrụ azụ nka, egwu, ịgba egwu na ịnya ịnyịnya . [8] Agụmakwụkwọ nka na mmetụta nka nke Warrick malitere n'ụlọ, nke nwanne ya nwanyị tọrọ Blanche zụlitere site na nwata, onye gụrụ nka nka, na nleta Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts ya na nna ya, onye nwere mmasị na ihe ọkpụkpụ na eserese. [4] [6] Nwanne ya nwanyị nke okenye, bụ onye mechara ghọọ onye na-achọ mma dị ka nne ha, na-edebe ụrọ nke Meta nwere ike iji mepụta nkà. Edebara aha ya na 1893 na ụlọ akwụkwọ sekọndrị ụmụ nwanyị na Philadelphia, ebe ọ gụrụ akwụkwọ nka yana nkuzi agụmakwụkwọ. [2] Warrick so na ndị omenkà ole na ole ahọpụtara n'ụlọ akwụkwọ ọha na eze Philadelphia ka ha mụọ nka na imewe na mmemme nka nke J. Liberty Tadd na Philadelphia School of Industrial Art na mmalite 1890s. [4]

Nwanne ya nwoke na nna nna ya nwere mmasị na akụkọ egwu na-adịghị agwụ agwụ. Mmetụta ndị a na-akpụzi ihe ọkpụkpụ ya, dịka o mesịrị mepụta dịka onye na-ese ihe a zụrụ azụ nke mba ụwa nke a maara dị ka "onye na-ese ihe egwu."


Agụmakwụkwọ

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Ọrụ Warrick dị ka onye na-ese ihe malitere mgbe ahọpụtara otu n'ime ọrụ ụlọ akwụkwọ sekọndrị ka etinyere ya na 1893 World's Columbian Exposition na Chicago. Dabere na ọrụ a, ọ meriri akwụkwọ mmụta afọ anọ na Pennsylvania Museum na School of Industrial Art (ugbu a Mahadum Arts College of Art and Design) na 1894, ebe onyinye ya maka ihe ọkpụkpụ pụtara. N'ime omume nnwere onwe na enweghị nkwekọrịta dị ka nwanyị na-ese ihe na-abịa ma na-abata, Warrick gbaghaara isiokwu ọdịnala "nwanyị" site n'ịkpụpụta iberibe ihe osise dị egwu dị na fin de siècle ije nke oge Symbolist . [9] N'oge dị iche iche, ọ bụ onye na-ese akwụkwọ, na ndị ọzọ bụ onye kere ihe osise - nke ọ gụrụ n'okpuru Charles Grafly na Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts . Ọ bụ ezie na o kwuru na ya apụghị ọkachamara na ụdị African-American, Fuller ghọrọ otu n'ime ndị kasị dị irè na-ede akụkọ banyere nwa ojii na United States. [10] Na 1898, ọ natara ya Pennsylvania Museum na School of Industrial Art diplọma na onye nkuzi [9] yana scholarships maka afọ ọzọ nke ọmụmụ.

Mgbe ọ gụsịrị akwụkwọ na 1899, Warrick gara Paris, France, ebe ya na Raphaël Collin na-amụ ihe, [9] na-arụ ọrụ na ihe ọkpụkpụ na anatomi na Académie Colarossi na ịbịaru na École des Beaux-Arts . [3] Warrick nwetara ịkpa ókè agbụrụ na American Women's Club na Paris, ebe a jụrụ ịbanye n'agbanyeghị na o meela ndoputa tupu ya erute n'obodo ahụ. [3] Onye na-ese ihe n'Africa-American Henry Ossawa Tanner, enyi ezinụlọ, chọtara ya ebe obibi ma nye obodo ya n'etiti ndị enyi ya. [11]

Ọrụ Warrick tolitere na Paris, ebe ọ gụrụ akwụkwọ ruo 1902. N'ịbụ onye na-emetụta echiche echiche nke Auguste Rodin, ọ ghọrọ onye maara nke ọma n'igosi ọnọdụ ime mmụọ nke nhụjuanya ụmụ mmadụ nke na ndị nta akụkọ France kpọrọ ya "onye na-ese ihe dị egwu." Na 1902, ọ ghọrọ onye nchebe nke Rodin . N'ime ihe osise plasta ya nke akpọrọ Nwoke Na-eri Obi Ya, Rodin kwuru, "Nwa m, ị bụ onye na-akpụ ihe; ị nwere mmetụta nke ụdị na mkpịsị aka gị." [12]

Ọrụ

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Meta Vaux Warrick Fuller, Mary Turner , ihe ọkpụkpụ nke plasta na-ese, 1919
dike gbara ọchịchịrị, National Archives and Records nchịkwa, College Park, Maryland

Warrick kere ọrụ nke ahụmahụ African-American bụ mgbanwe mgbanwe. Ha tụlere ihe mgbagwoju anya nke okike, okpukperechi, njirimara, na mba. A na-ewere ya dịka akụkụ nke Harlem Renaissance, nke na-emepe emepe na New York nke ndị America America na-eme nka nke ụdị dị iche iche, akwụkwọ, egwuregwu na uri. Ụlọ ihe ngosi nka Danforth, nke natara onyinye $ 40,000 sitere na Henry Luce Foundation iji chekwaa ọrụ Warrick Fuller, na-ekwu na Fuller bụ "n'ozuzu a na-ewere dị ka otu n'ime ndị mbụ na-ese onyinyo nwanyị Afrika-American dị mkpa."

Paris

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Na Paris, ọ zutere American sociologist WEB DuBois, bụ onye ghọrọ enyi ogologo ndụ na ntụkwasị obi. Ọ gbara Warrick ume ka o si na isiokwu Africa na African-American na-arụ ọrụ ya. Ọ zutere onye na-ese ihe French bụ Auguste Rodin, bụ onye gbara ume ịkpụ ya. [12] Ezigbo onye ndụmọdụ ya bụ Henry Ossawa Tanner mgbe ọ na-amụta ihe site na Raphaël Collin . [13] Ọ bụ "oke nwoke na ike mbụ" nke ihe ọkpụkpụ ya mere ka ìgwè mmadụ France banye n'ọrụ ya ma mee ka ọ bụrụ otuto. [3] Ọ tụrụ ìgwè mmadụ Paris n'anya na nwanyị nwere ike ịmepụta ọrụ ndị na-egosi "egwu, ihe mgbu na iru újú." Ọ bụụrụ Warrick ahụ efe na okike ya abụghị ihe na-egbochi ka ọha na eze si meghachi omume n'ụdị agbụrụ ya, dịka ọ ga-adị na United States. [3] Ka ọ na-erule n'ọgwụgwụ oge ya na Paris, a maara ya nke ọma, meekwa ka e gosi ọrụ ya n'ọtụtụ veranda. [14]

Samuel Bing, onye na-elekọta Aubrey Beardsley, Mary Cassatt, na Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, ghọtara ikike ya site n'ịkwado ihe ngosi otu nwanyị gụnyere Siegfried Bing 's Salon de l'Art Nouveau (Maison de l'Art Nouveau). [15] [16] Na 1903, obere oge tupu Warrick laghachi United States, e gosipụtara ọrụ ya abụọ, The Wretched na The Ipennitent Thief, na Paris Salon . [14]

United States

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N'ịlaghachi na Philadelphia na 1903, ndị òtù na-ahụ maka nkà ihe nkiri Philadelphia jụrụ Warrick n'ihi agbụrụ ya na n'ihi na a na-ewere nkà ya dị ka "ụlọ." [17] Otú ọ dị, Fuller ghọrọ nwanyị mbụ onye America nke nwetara ọrụ gọọmentị US. Maka ihe nrite a, o mepụtara usoro tableaux nke na-egosi ihe omume akụkọ ihe mere eme nke African-American maka Jamestown Tercentennial Exposition, nke e mere na Norfolk, Virginia na 1907. [18] Ngosipụta ahụ gụnyere dioramas iri na anọ na ihe osise plasta e sere 130 na-egosi ihe nkiri dị ka ndị ohu rutere na Virginia na 1619 na ndụ ebe obibi nke ndị isi ojii. [19]

Ihe ngosi

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1907 Jamestown Tercentennial

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Na February 1907, Warrick nwetara nkwekọrịta iji mepụta dioramas iri na anọ na-egosi ahụmahụ Africa-American. N'oge ahụ, a kọwara ya dị ka "Tableaux History of the Negroes' Progress." Ọkọ akụkọ ihe mere eme W. Fitzhugh Brundage akọwawo Fuller's tableaux dị ka nke na-atụ aro "ịgbasawanye nke ikike ojii, ọchịchọ na ahụmahụ, [na-egosi] ihe ọzọ dị mma na ihe nnọchianya ọcha nke akụkọ ihe mere eme." [20] E nyere tableaux Warrick ihe ngosi pụtara ìhè na Negro Building na Jamestown Tercentennial, ebe ha ji 15,000 square ụkwụ. [20] Ihe nkiri nke ọ bụla nwere ihe osise plasta na-ese ihe na nnukwu ebe a na-ese ihe. The tableaux 14 gosipụtara ihe ndị a: ọdịda nke ndị ohu mbụ na Jamestown ; ndị ohu na-arụ ọrụ n'ubi owu; ohu gbalaga na nzuzo; nzụkọ nke mbụ African Methodist Episcopal Church ; ohu na-agbachitere ụlọ onye nwe ya n'oge Agha Obodo ; ndị ohu a tọhapụrụ ọhụrụ na-ewu ụlọ nke ha; onye ọrụ ugbo ojii nọọrọ onwe ya, onye na-ewu ụlọ na onye ọrụ nkwekọrịta; onye ọchụnta ego ojii na onye na-ahụ maka ụlọ akụ; ihe nkiri n'ime ụlọ, ụka na ụlọ akwụkwọ African-American ọgbara ọhụrụ; na n'ikpeazụ, a mahadum mmalite. Maka ọrụ ya na tableaux, Warrick nwetara nrite ọla edo site n'aka ndị nduzi ihe ngosi ahụ. [18]

Etiopia na ndị ọzọ

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Meta Vaux Warrick Fuller, Etiopia, ihe ọkpụkpụ ọla, 1910

Fuller gosipụtara na Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts na 1920. O kere otu n'ime ọrụ ya a ma ama, Etiopia (nke a makwaara dị ka Etiopia Awakening ) , maka ihe ngosi nke America na 1921. [21] Ihe omume a bụ iji gosi onyinye ndị kwabatara na obodo nka na omenala US. E gosipụtara ihe ọkpụkpụ a na "ngalaba agba" ihe ngosi ahụ, ọ na-egosipụtakwa njirimara ojii ọhụrụ nke na-apụta site na Harlem Renaissance. Ọ na-anọchi anya mpako nke ndị Africa America na ihe nketa na njirimara ndị Africa na ndị ojii. [22] Etiopia, nke sitere na echiche ihe ọkpụkpụ nke Egypt, bụ ihe osise agụmakwụkwọ nke nwanyị Africa nke na-apụta site na mkpuchi mummy, dị ka chrysalis sitere na aki oyibo, na-anọchi anya nkwupụta ya banyere nsụhọ ojii zuru ụwa ọnụ. Fuller mere ọtụtụ nsụgharị nke Etiopia, gụnyere obere maquette na aka ekpe nke ọnụ ọgụgụ ahụ na-emepụta site n'ahụ ya (ugbu a furu efu) na nkedo ọla abụọ zuru oke, nke nwere aka ekpe na-emepụta ihe na nke abụọ [ ] ezighị ezi, na aka ekpe na-agbanye n'akụkụ ọnụ ọgụgụ ahụ.

Na 1922, Fuller gosipụtara ọrụ ọkpụkpụ ya na Boston Public Library . Agụnyere ọrụ ya na ihe ngosi maka Tanner League, nke e mere na studio nke Dunbar High School na Washington, DC Ụlọ ọrụ gọọmenti etiti na-etinye ya n'ọrụ, mana ọ nwetaghị agbamume dị ukwuu na US dịka ọ nwetara na Paris. Fuller nọgidere na-egosipụta ọrụ ya ruo mgbe ngosi ikpeazụ ya (1961) na Howard University (Washington, DC) na 1961. [19]

Abụ

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Agụnyere abụ ya "Ọpụpụ" na nchịkọta 1991 Ugbu a bụ Oge Gị! Mgbalị African-American maka nnwere onwe. [23]

Oge dị nso (enweghị mmasị ewepụrụ)
M na-ahụ ka ogbu mmiri na-ese n'elu mmiri na-ebbing
Mgbe m nọ n'ikpere mmiri, ndị enyi m na ndị m hụrụ n'anya guzoro.
Efere m ha aka nkewa nke ọma,
Mgbe ahụ, nọrọ n'ọnọdụ m na Charon n'isi,
Tụgharịakwa ma fee ha ọzọ.
Oh, ka njem ahụ ghara ịdị ike ma ọ bụ ogologo;
Ma na-ekwughachi n'abụ abụ na abụ ọṅụ.
Ka m jiri nsọpụrụ na amara hụ.
Ọhụụ dị ebube nke ihu Nna-ukwu.

Ụlọ ihe nkiri

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Warrick Fuller nyere nnukwu onyinye na ụlọ ihe nkiri. Ọ bụ onye nrụpụta ọtụtụ akụkụ, onye nduzi na onye na-eme ihe nkiri. Otu n'ime ihe o lekwasịrị anya bụ ọkụ ogbo, nke a na-ewereghị dị ka ezigbo nka ruo ngwụcha afọ 1920; Ọzọkwa, ndị ikom na-achị imewe ọkụ. [24] Fuller nwere ike ịmepụta maka ụlọ ọrụ ihe nkiri Africa-American na nke ọcha, bụ nke a na-anụtụbeghị n'oge ahụ. N'afọ 1918, ọ sonyeere otu ụlọ ihe nkiri na Boston, Massachusetts. A maara ya maka eserese ya nke "foto dị ndụ" yana imepụta ihe eji eme ihe, ihe nkiri na ihe mkpuchi. Azịza ya bụ mmepụta ogbo African-American ebe Fuller chepụtara ejiji ma na-arụkwa obere ọrụ. Ọ ghọrọ onye na-arụsi ọrụ ike na ndị egwuregwu Civic League (CLS) na ngwụcha afọ 1920 ma bụrụ naanị onye America-America na nzukọ ahụ. Site na CLS, Fuller rụrụ ọrụ na ihe ngosi iri atọ n'akụkụ niile nke mmepụta na nkuzi nkuzi. N'afọ 1928, ọ nọ na-agụ akwụkwọ ihe nkiri na Wellesley College na Mahadum Columbia nke lekwasịrị anya n'ibe akwụkwọ, ọkụ, na edemede. Mgbe ọ nwesịrị obere ọrụ na CLS, Fuller sonyeere ụlọ ọrụ ihe nkiri Black a na-akpọ Allied Arts Theater Group (AATG) ebe ọ rụrụ ọrụ dị ka onye nrụpụta isi, onye isi na onye otu bọọdụ. O tinyere aka na AATG ruo mgbe onye nchoputa nwụrụ na 1936. Ọbụna na nkwa ya nke ịbụ onye na-ese ihe na ịrụ ọrụ na ụlọ ihe nkiri, Fuller dere ma ọ dịkarịa ala egwuregwu isii n'okpuru pseudonym, Danny Deaver. Nke a bụ akụkụ nke ntụzịaka ọkwa n'ime mmepụta ya akpọrọ, Oku mgbe etiti abalị :

Hụkwa

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Ihe ndetu

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Ntụaka

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oge Symbolist . N'oge dị iche iche, ọ bụ onye na-ese akwụkwọ, na ndị ọzọ bụ onye kere ihe osise - nke ọ gụrụ n'okpuru Charles Grafly na Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts . Ọ bụ ezie na o kwuru na ya apụghị ọkachamara na ụdị African-American, Fuller ghọrọ otu n'ime ndị kasị dị irè na-ede akụkọ banyere nwa ojii na Unitedoge Symbolist . [25] N'oge dị iche iche, ọ bụ onye na-ese akwụkwọ, na ndị ọzọ bụ onye kere ihe osise - nke ọ gụrụ n'okpuru Charles Grafly na Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts . Ọ bụ ezie na o kwuru na ya apụghị ọkachamara na ụdị African-American, Fuller ghọrọ otu n'ime ndị kasị dị irè na-ede akụkọ banyere nwa ojii na United

  1. ↑ "Negro Girl Wins Fame Is The Only Sculptress Of The Colored Race. Meta Vaux Warrick." Wichita Searchlight (Wichita, Kansas), November 8, 1902: 1. Readex: African American Newspapers.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Meta Vaux Warrick Fuller. American National Biography Online. Retrieved on March 11, 2017.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Hoover (1977). "Meta Vaux Warrick Fuller: Her Life and Her Art". Negro History Bulletin 40 (2): 678–681. ISSN 0028-2529. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Farrington (2005). Creating Their Own Image The History Of African American Women Artists. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-516721-4. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Meta Warrick Fuller (en-US). Framingham History Center. Archived from the original on April 6, 2019. Retrieved on May 5, 2020.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Sicherman (1980). Notable American Women: The Modern Period; a Biographical Dictionary. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-62733-8. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 African American Migration. Encyclopedia of Greater Philadelphia. Retrieved on May 6, 2020.
  8. ↑ Finkelman (2009). Encyclopedia of African American History: 5-Volume Set (in en). Oxford University Press, USA, 280. ISBN 978-0-19-516779-5. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Leininger-Miller (2001). New Negro Artists in Paris: African American Painters and Sculptors in the City of Light, 1922–1934. Rutgers University Press. 
  10. ↑ Crisis, XXXII, 6 (October 1926), 246.
  11. ↑ Meta Vaux Warrick Fuller, 1877 – 1968 | Reid Hall. reidhall.globalcenters.columbia.edu. Retrieved on 27 March 2024.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Sutherland (March 12, 2007). Meta Warrick Fuller (1877-1968) (en-US). Retrieved on March 7, 2020.
  13. ↑ "How is Meta Vaux Warrick Fuller's "Ethiopia Awakening" a symbol of the Harlem Renaissance?", ThoughtCo. Retrieved on 2017-11-09.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 "A Harlem Showcase for Black Art", The New York Times, p. C25.
  15. ↑ Meta Vaux Warrick Fuller. Bridgewater State College Hall of Black Achievement (2005-11-17). Archived from the original on 2009-07-24. Retrieved on 2008-03-30.
  16. ↑ Thorp (2007-05-08). Siegfried Bing, 1838–1905. The James McNeill Whistler project at the University of Glasgow. Archived from the original on 2008-01-02. Retrieved on 2008-03-30.
  17. ↑ Manning (2009). The African Diaspora: A History Through Culture. New York: Columbia University Press, 211. ISBN 978-0-231-14471-1. 
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 The Industrial History of the Negro Race of the United States. Archive.org (1908). Retrieved on 2018-04-13.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Meta V.W. Fuller, sculptor of Black themes. The African-American Registry (2005-06-09). Archived from the original on 2008-03-17. Retrieved on 2008-03-29.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Brundage (March 2003). "Meta Warrick's 1907 'Negro Tableaux' and (Re)presenting African American Historical Memory". The Journal of American History 89 (4): 1368–1400. DOI:10.2307/3092547. 
  21. ↑ Kpọpụta njehie: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :4
  22. ↑ Ater (2003). "Making History: Meta Warrick Fuller's 'Ethiopia'". American Art 17 (3): 12–31. DOI:10.1086/444622. 
  23. ↑ Walter Dean Myers, Now Is Your Time! The African-American Struggle for Freedom, 1991.
  24. ↑ Perkins (1990). "The Genius of Meta Warrick Fuller". Black American Literature Forum 24 (1): 65–72. DOI:10.2307/2904066. 
  25. ↑ Leininger-Miller (2001). New Negro Artists in Paris: African American Painters and Sculptors in the City of Light, 1922–1934. Rutgers University Press. 

Akwụkwọ akụkọ

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  • Ater, Renée. Ịmegharị agbụrụ na akụkọ ihe mere eme: Ihe ọkpụkpụ nke Meta Warrick Fuller. Berkeley: Mahadum California Press. 2011. ISBN 9780520262126 

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